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Nomophobia in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis
For correspondence: Dr Angelin Priya, Department of Community Medicine, Jamshedpur Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Jamshedpur 831 003, Jharkhand, India e-mail: angelin.priya@manipal.edu
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
How to cite this article: Priya A, Sinha R, Sethia S, Rahman MHU, Melwani V. Nomophobia in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Indian J Med Res. 2026;163:631-9. doi: 10.25259/IJMR_2163_2025.
Abstract
Background and objectives
Nomophobia is characterised by discomfort, anxiousness, and worry caused by separation from a mobile device. It affects the personality, self-esteem, anxiety, along with behavioural changes of the user. In the era where every aspect of life is dependent on mobile phones, understanding the burden of nomophobia is essential to bring about any intervention. The present study aims to find the prevalence of Nomophobia.
Methods
We searched the literature in PubMed (MEDLINE) and EMBASE databases by using relevant keywords for the studies published between January 1, 2008, and April 4, 2025. The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD 42023446355). Selected articles were screened based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Articles with observational studies in English, having information regarding the proportion of nomophobia in the adult population of India, were included. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal scale for studies reporting prevalence data was used to assess the study quality.
Results
A total of 25 studies were included in our study, comprising 10607 study participants. The pooled prevalence of nomophobia was found to be 77.6% (95% CI: 74.9% - 80.2.0%). The most common study tools used to detect nomophobia was the Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP). The sensitivity analysis revealed the pooled prevalence of nomophobia to be 74.9% to 80.2%, ruling out the impact of any one study on the result.
Interpretation and conclusion
This meta-analysis reveals the significant burden of nomophobia. These findings position nomophobia as a pressing health concern requiring proactive interventions to safeguard mental well-being and productivity in the youth.
Keywords
India
Meta-analysis
Mobile phone
Nomophobia
Smartphone
Nomophobia, or ‘No-Mobile-Phone Phobia,’ term was originally used in 2008 by the UK Post Office to describe a contemporary issue. It is a disorder of the modern age and virtual culture characterised by discomfort, anxiousness, and worry caused by separation from a mobile device.1,2 The rampant use of mobile technology for communication and interaction has led to the rise of this phenomenon.3
The global prevalence of Nomophobia has been found to be from 29.5 to 100% across different countries. Canada and Bahrain were countries with the highest rates of Nomophobia (100%).4 In a Study done in the United States, nomophobia was found to be associated with obsessiveness, severity of nomophobia increased with an increase in obsession.5 In Turkey, nomophobia was seen to increase social phobia, social appearance anxiety, and social media dependence in university students. Nomophobia is seen more in adolescents and is one of the causes of disruption of relationships with peers, as digital or virtual contact is preferred over physical contact.6 India ranks second amongst the active internet users globally.
The internet technology in mobile phones gives an array of benefits to its users. The ability to connect to anyone worldwide, to share one’s thoughts, pictures, videos, and constant access to information make mobile phones indispensable.7 While the social cognitive theory describes that technology can be used as a means to relieve stress, low self-esteem, and negative emotions related to low academic performance. It is also argued that the relationship between the use of technology and academic performance is bidirectional.8 Studies have found that nomophobia has been associated with affecting personality, self-esteem, anxiety, along with behavioural changes. It has been found to cause changes in mental and physical health. Musculoskeletal problems like neck, shoulder, back pain, and wrist pain have been seen with increased mobile usage. Text neck syndrome and SMS thumb are some conditions seen in nomophobics.8-10
Significant gaps exist in knowledge, making nomophobia itself less well-known. There is a conceptual misunderstanding when terminology like addiction or dependency is used interchangeably with nomophobia in academic literature and casual interactions.11-14 Inconclusive evidence and no research on interventions of nomophobia emphasise the need for an in-depth study. Understanding this phenomenon will enable a better plan for intervention. We conducted this systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the prevalence of Nomophobia in India to understand the magnitude of the problem so that strategies and intervention be formulated for this problem.
Methods
The present study was undertaken with the research question PECO criteria for prevalence studies: ‘What is the prevalence of Nomophobia in India? The Population –Population residing in India, E- mobile phone users, C- None, O – Nomophobia. The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (Registration ID: CRD 42023446355). PRISMA checklist 2020 was used for protocol and manuscript development.15
Selection of articles
Articles in PubMed (MEDLINE) and EMBASE database were searched on 4th April 2025. Keywords included (‘nomophobia’ [All Fields] OR ‘no mobile phone phobia’[All Fields] OR (‘mobile phone’[All Fields] AND (addiction*[All Fields] OR phobia[All Fields])) OR (‘smartphone’[All Fields] AND (addiction*[All Fields] OR phobia[All Fields]))) AND (‘India’[MeSH Terms] OR India[All Fields]) AND (prevalence[Title/Abstract] OR incidence[Title/Abstract] OR burden[Title/Abstract] OR proportion[Title/Abstract] OR frequency[Title/Abstract]).
Selection and screening of articles
As the term Nomophobia was first used in 2008, articles published from January 1, 2008 till the date of the search was searched. Articles found were imported into MS Excel software, and duplicate entries were removed after merging articles from both databases. Screening of title, abstract, and full text of the articles was done by three stage screening process. The screening was done on the basis of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Inclusion Criteria for the study was that (i) it should be published in English, (ii) it should be an observational study or cross sectional, comparative, or multi-centric study, (iii) it should be done in the Indian population residing in India, and (iv) it should have information on the proportion of the population diagnosed to have nomophobia. Articles with information about internet addiction were excluded. Articles with ambiguous and overlapping data were excluded.
Data extraction and quality assessment
Data were extracted in the following format, which included the first Author, study year, study location, scale used for diagnosis of Nomophobia, study population, outcome of interest (Nomophobia), sample size, and other variables measured by the study. The study data of shortlisted articles were captured in data summary tables. Meta-analysis of the selected studies was done using Der Simonian-Laird (DSL) method, and Leave-one-out sensitivity analysis was done to address the possible impact of any particular study on the aggregate pooled effect. The methodological quality of the shortlisted individual article was assessed by using the JBI ‘Critical Appraisal Checklist for Studies Reporting Prevalence Data’ scale.16 The quality of individual articles are depicted in Table I3,8,17-39.
| Author | Place of study | Diagnosis of nomophobia through | Sample size | Event |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dixit et al17, 2010 | Indore, MP | A pre-designed and pre-tested questionnaire developed by Dr. Marcus L. Raines | 200 | 37 |
| Sharma et al18, 2015 | Indore, MP | Self-developed, pre validated questionnaire | 118 | 87 |
| Dasgupta et al19, 2017 | West Bengal | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 608 | 265 |
| Prasad et al20, 2017 | West UP | Self adminstered questionnaire based on study by Ramadu and Yildrim C | 588 | 138 |
| Kanmani et al21, 2017 | Karnataka and Tamil Nadu | Nomophobia questionnaire | 1500 | 1482 |
| Dongre et al22, 2017 | Nanded, Maharashtra | International Classification of Diseases diagnostic crietria for dependence syndrome | 650 | 448 |
| Chandak et al8, 2017 | Central India | Nomophobia questionnaire, Cronbach’s alpha, for all the items in the NMP-Q was.945. | 100 | 38 |
| Mallaya et al23, 2018 | Bangalore Karnataka | pretested questionnaire based on Yildrim C study | 145 | 126 |
| Sethia et al24, 2018 | Bhopal, MP | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 473 | 472 |
| Harish and Bharath25, 2018 | Mandya Karnataka | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 405 | 401 |
| Myakal et al26, 2019 | Ambajogai, Beed, Maharashtra | Test of mobile phone dependence Brief test | 346 | 247 |
| Jilisha et al27, 2019 | Puducherry, India | Nomophobia questionnaire | 774 | 765 |
| Veerapu et al28, 2018 | Khammam,Telangana | Nomophobia questionnaire | 364 | 364 |
| Marthandappa29, 2018 | Bellary, Karnataka | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 419 | 263 |
| Chenathana et al30, 2019 | Karnataka | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 228 | 228 |
| Mengi et al31, 2020 | Southern Haryana | Questionnaire by Raines | 600 | 437 |
| Maheshwari et al32, 2020 | Faridkot, Punjab | Nomophobia Questionnaire. | 300 | 299 |
| Bartwal and Nath33, 2018 | Northern India | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 451 | 451 |
| Anusuya et al34, 2021 | Chennai | Yildirim C and Correia AP Nomophobia questionnaire | 100 | 99 |
| Ghanate et al35, 2021 | Karnataka | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 1400 | 1383 |
| Kumar et al36, 2022 | Puducherry,India | International Classification of Diseases diagnostic criteria for dependence syndrome | 169 | 63 |
| Mohapatra et al37, 2023 | Bhubaneshwar,Orissa | Nomophobia questionnaire | 302 | 97 |
| Rao et al3, 2023 | Patna, Eastern India | Nomophobia questionnaire | 367 | 358 |
| Balamurugan et al38, 2024 | Chennai | Test of mobile phone dependence Brief test | 220 | 151 |
| Sharma et al39, 2024 | Western India | Nomophobia Questionnaire | 420 | 418 |
Results
Identification and final selection of articles are depicted in Figure 1. A total of 25 studies were finally included for meta-analysis. Details of these studies are depicted in Table I.3,8,17-39 All studies were cross-sectional studies. Total of 9280 participants had nomophobia out of 10,607 participants. The majority of the study participants were college students. The overall estimated pooled prevalence of nomophobia in India with a Der Simonian–Laird (DSL) method was 77.6% [95% confidence interval (CI): 74.9%-80.2.0%] with a heterogeneity index (I2) of 99.56% (P<0.001). Figure 2 shows the forest plot of pooled prevalence. Figure 3 shows the funnel plot of standard error by proportion. The funnel plot is indicative of publication bias. In our study, the prevalence of nomophobia varied from 75.8 to 81%, on doing sensitivity analysis, the prevalence varied from 74.0 to 83.6%, as depicted in Figure 4. Thus, none of the studies were outliers or has greatly influenced the findings of our meta-analysis. Supplementary Table 3 , 8 , 17 - 39 shows the risk of bias assessment was done by the JBI Critical Appraisal Checklist for Studies Reporting Prevalence Data scale. All studies were of good quality. Table II depicts the pooled prevalence of nomophobia by geographical regions of India, and by the tools used for the diagnosis of nomophobia. Table III 3 , 8 , 17 - 39 shows the association of nomophobia with different variables.
| Subgroup categories | No. of studies | Event/sample size | Pooled prevalence, % (95% CI) | Heterogeneity (I2) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diagnostic tools | ||||
| NMP questionnaire | 19 | 8150/9491 | 83 (71-94) | 99.98 |
| Others | 7 | 1383/2185 | 56 (38-75) | 98.87 |
| By geographical regions | ||||
| North | 4 | 1325/1939 | 74 (63-89) | 99.86 |
| East | 3 | 720/1277 | 58 (91-95) | 99.81 |
| West | 1 | 418/420 | 99.5 (99,01) | - |
| South | 12 | 5625/6024 | 89 (75-1.01) | 99.96 |
| Central | 6 | 634/891 | 58 (11-1.04) | 99.72 |
CI, confidence interval
| Author | Outcome variables measured by different studies | Findings |
|---|---|---|
| Dixit et al17 | Prevalence of nomophobia | No statistically significant association was observed in relation to gender, place of stay and academic sessions with nomophobia score. |
| Sharma et al18 | Assess the pattern of mobile phone usage and prevalence of nomophobia | Nomophobia was found in 89% of the study population. |
| Dasgupta et al19 | Comparison of nomophobic behaviors, smartphone usage and predictors of nomophobia | Age, duration of mobile phone usage had higher odds of developing nomophobia. Female gender and those studying in 3rd year and above were significantly associated with NMP. |
| Prasad et al20 | Pattern of usage of mobile phones and its effects on the academic performance of students. | High prevalence of nomophobia seen in preclinical students. |
| Kanmani et al21 | Prevalence of nomophobia | It is evident that there is a gradual decline in levels of Nomophobia as the person proceeds in age. |
| Dongre et al22 | Prevalence of nomophobia among mobile phone users; to study cell phone dependence pattern among adults; and to study the health effects of mobile phone usage. | The prevalence of Nomophobia was significantly associated with gender. Similarly, the unmarried (91.18%) respondents had moremobile phone dependence compared with married (33.99%). Nomophobia was found to be higher among smart phone users (83.17%) com-pared with simple phone users (7.01%), a statistically significant association (P<0.0001). Majority of subject with nomophobia belong to upper middle class (78.90%) This association was statistically significant (P<0.0001). |
| Chandak et al8 | Prevalence of nomophobia and its relationship with various clinical and sociodemographic factors | Nomophobia was seen significantly more in those who spend 3-4 h per day on mobile phone |
| Mallaya et al23 | Prevalence of nomophobia among medical students, to evaluate the socio behavioural determinants of nomophobia, and to explore the behavioural subdimensions of nomophobia along with attitude of medical students toward smartphone usage | Statistically significant association between gender and nomophobia (P=0.003) and between perceived smartphone addiction and nomophobia was found. |
| Sethia et al24 | Prevalence of nomophobia | Those using mobile for 2-4 and 4-6 h/day were having maximum proportion of mild and moderate nomophobia out of all participants. |
| Harish and Bharath25 | Prevalence of nomophobia; | Among both females and males majority had moderate nomophobia and severe nomophobia. |
| Myakal et al26 | Assess prevalence of nomophobia among medical students, pattern of mobile phone usage, know health related consequences of nomophobia | Prevalence of nomophobia was high among males. Students in nuclear family, age group 20-22 yr, spending more than Rs 400/- were significantly associated with nomophobia. |
| Jilisha et al27 | Prevalence and factors associated with nomophobia and to understand the perception of young adults about excessive smartphone usage, through qualitative methods | Significant association between male gender and nomophobia. The duration of smartphone usage was significantly related to nomophobia. Checking the smartphone without any reason was found to be significantly contributing to nomophobia on linear regression. |
| Veerapu et al28 | Grading of nomophobia and to find out correlation between nomophobia and sleeping difficulty and anxiety among medical students | Weak positive correlation between nomophobia and hours of usage of mobile phone, sleeping difficulty, General anxiety (Person correlation coefficient r=0.32, 0.25, 0.26, respectively). |
| Marthandappa et al29 | Patterns, prevalence and determinants of nomophobia | Access to internet, higher duration and number of applications used was found to be statistically significant with nomophobia. |
| Chenathana et al30 | Prevalence and severity of nomophobia related to the use of smart phones among undergraduate medical students and the association of nomophobia with loneliness, self happiness and self-esteem among in them | Nomophobia was found to be positively correlated with perceived loneliness and negatively correlated with happiness and self esteem, the correlation between nomophobia and self esteem showed statistical significance. |
| Mengi et al31 | Prevalence of nomophobia among students and interns of medical college and its negative impacts on their sleep quality, and academic performance | Poor Sleep quality index was found in people with high score of nomophobia. |
| Maheshwari et al32 | Prevalence of nomophobia | 59.9% of the study participants were having moderate nomophobia and 32.7% were having severe nomophobia |
| Bartwal and Nath33 | Evaluate nomophobia among medical students who are using smartphones. | Among the students, factors such as age, average time spent on SM (χ2=10.5, P=0.005) and checking SM >10 times/day were found to have a statistically significant association with mild, moderate and severe nomophobic nature of the students. |
| Anusuya et al34 | Prevalence of nomophobia and pattern of mobile phone usage | Duration of mobile phone usage was found to be highly significant. |
| Ghanate et al35 | Prevalence in engineering students, the association between nomophobia and quality of sleep and the association between nomophobia and behavioural problems. | Positive correlation (0.332) was seen between nomophobia and depression. |
| Kumar et al36 | Prevalence of nomophobia in the medical college students, to assess the stress and anxiety in the absence of smartphone and correlate it with the conduction velocity of median nerve | Duration of phone usage and people in urban area were found to be highly addicted to mobile phones and have more nomophobia than others. |
| Mohapatra et al37 | Assess the prevalence of Nomophobia, determine the usage pattern of mobile phones and evaluate the impact due to lack of access to mobile phones among undergraduate dental students | 32.1% prevalence was found. |
| Rao et al3 | Proportion and predictors of internet addiction and nomophobia among medical undergraduates. | Duration of using the mobile phone, checking phone first in the morning, affected academic performance due to use of cell phone, presence of internet addiction were identified to be independent predictors of moderate-severe nomophobia among students. |
| Balmurugan et al38 | Association between sociodemographic factors and mobile phone addiction or nomophobia | A significant association was found between social class and mobile phone addiction, with the middle class exhibiting higher levels of addiction. |
| Sharma et al39 | Relationship of nomophobia with mindfulness and self-efficacy | With the increase in levels of nomophobia, mindfulness and self-efficacy tend to decrease |
Discussion
The present meta-analysis was conducted to find the burden of nomophobia in India. We found 25 studies that matched our inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of nomophobia was found to be high. The burden was seen mostly in university students, mostly medical students, followed by engineering and other college students. Our results align with international evidence indicating behavioural concern among students globally.
Systematic review and meta-analysis done by Tuco et al40 in university students across the world found the overall prevalence of nomophobia to 100%. Similarly, Notara et al41 found the prevalence to be between 15.2-99.7% in young adults. This can be attributed to academic dependence on digital platforms for educational needs and the ubiquity of smartphones.
The high prevalence observed in India likely reflects the rapid penetration of smartphones and ever-present social media engagement, as corroborated by Sui et al42, who identified social media dependency and constant smartphone accessibility as key predictors of nomophobia. The conceptual overlap between nomophobia and internet addiction, noted in multiple studies, further complicates measurement but reinforces the centrality of smartphone-mediated behaviours in modern behavioural health challenges.
Given the substantial prevalence, nomophobia must be recognised as an emerging public health priority in India. Untreated nomophobia is associated with anxiety, impaired academic performance, sleep disturbances, and interpersonal deficits. The young adult demographic—currently at the epicenter of this issue—represents the future workforce; thus, early intervention is critical to mitigate long-term mental health and productivity consequences. Strategies to ensure that there is healthy use of technology and inculcation of gadget-free phases in daily schedules can minimise the effect of nomophobia.
Establishment of rehabilitation centres for management is recommended by Thanagel et al,43 Spiritual mindful-based interventions in Indonesia, Cognitive behavioural therapy in Turkey, Mindfulness-based interventions in China, and group therapy in Vietnam are some of the interventions whose effectiveness is being studied through research. Further exploration of interventions should be prioritised to address this behavioural epidemic effectively.44,45
Our study focuses on the prevalence of nomophobia; the degree of severity of nomophobia was not available in all studies, hence it was not assessed. The heterogeneity was in the present meta-analysis, and publication bias was also found. The heterogeneity could have been explored through meta-regression, and that is one of the limitations of our study. The study found that the majority of the studies were done in college students, the findings cannot be applied to the general population. Few studies reported different questionnaires, which may introduce bias; however, subgroup analysis of tools has been done.
It is recommended for future researchers to deepen the investigation of nomophobia and to understand predisposing factors leading to nomophobia. The coping mechanism used by people with nomophobia, when a phone is not around, should also be studied. The prevalence of nomophobia in the working and geriatric population can also be studied, to know the extent of the problem. India must urgently establish national digital wellness guidelines and mandate their seamless integration into every school curriculum to protect the mental health and future productivity of our youth.
Author contributions
RS: Concept, literature search, screening, data analysis, manuscript writing; AP: Concept, literature search, methodology, screening, data analysis, manuscript writing; SS: Literature search, methodology, manuscript writing; MHUR: Literature search, methodology, manuscript writing; VM: Literature search, methodology, manuscript writing. All authors have read and approve the final printed version of the manuscript.
Financial support and sponsorship
None.
Conflicts of Interest
None.
Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Assisted Technology for manuscript preparation
The authors confirm use of AI-assisted technology ChatGPT for editing of the manuscript during revision which was reviewed by the authors and no images were manipulated using AI.
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