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Bacteriophage research in India and its implications for human health: A scoping review
For correspondence: Dr Santasabuj Das, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Bacterial Infections, Kolkata 700 010, West Bengal, India e-mail: santasabujdas@yahoo.com
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
How to cite this article: Das S, Mondal S, Hossain M, Asif M, Sen S, Mondal P, et al. Bacteriophage research in India and its implications for human health: A scoping review of existing evidence and research gaps. Indian J Med Res. 2026;163:139-65. doi: 10.25259/IJMR_2923_2025.
Abstract
Background and objectives
Amidst the setting of a worldwide threat posed by antimicrobial resistance, bacteriophages have emerged as novel antibiotic alternatives. This scoping review was conducted to systematically survey and categorise bacteriophage research conducted in India, focusing on explicit implications for human health.
Methods
We conducted a scoping review according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. We searched five databases (PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library) without any date restrictions through June 2025. Studies were included if they presented original research on bacteriophages or phage therapy in Indian settings (human, animal, orenvironmental). Data were tabulated on a pre-designed form and classified by application area, study type, and outcomes.
Results
The initial search of the databases led to 4,756 studies, and ultimately, 111 were included. Studies were predominantly from the laboratory setting, with very few clinical and translational studies. The majority of the included study types were animal models of efficacy and in vitro phage characterisation. Very few were conducted with human subjects or clinical trial designs. Gaps of particular concern are a lack of regulatory framework, clinical trials, pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic studies, synthetic biology methods, and One Health integrated surveillance systems.
Interpretation and conclusion
Bacteriophage research in India is growing but is still underdeveloped in translational areas. Closing the listed shortcomings and keeping the pace with international innovations, such as engineered phages, standardised formulations, and clinical validations, will be critical to realise the full potential of phage therapy in India.
Keywords
Antimicrobial resistance
Bacteriophage
India
One Health
Phage research
Globally, antimicrobial resistance is estimated to cause nearly five million deaths annually, with low-andmiddle-income countries (LMICs), such as India, carrying a disproportionate burden. In India, key contributors include indiscriminate antibiotic use in humans and livestock, over-the-counter availability of antibiotics, discharge of pharmaceutical effluents into the general environment, and inadequate infection prevention in both hospitals and the community. The increased global burden of antimicrobial resistance has brought back the interest in bacteriophages - viruses that infect and lyse bacteria, and thus, present as a potential alternative to traditional antibiotic treatment.1 First isolated in the early 20th century, bacteriophage research was overshadowed by the antibiotic age, but has reemerged due to the increased incidence and spread of multidrug-resistant infections, especially in the LMICs, where access to the correct antimicrobials continues to be limited.1,2
The recent developments in bacteriophage biology have underscored their specificity, capability to co-evolve with bacterial targets, the ability to eliminate biofilms, and their potential to target intracellular pathogens, thereby proving them useful against infections caused by multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and pan-drug-resistant bacteria.2 Enzymes derived from the phage-like depolymerases and endolysins also contribute to the therapeutic repertoire by facilitating the degradation of the biofilms and promoting therapeutic synergism with antibiotics.2,3 Phages have also been used for purposes other than therapeutics, such as application in diagnostics, vaccine manufacturing, gene delivery, and anti-cancer treatment.3,4 Phage therapy offers unique advantages over antibiotics with more specificity, anti-biofilm activity, and co-evolution with the bacterial hosts. However, inherent limitations, such as narrow host range, rapid clearance by host immunity, uncertain pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, absence of standardised formulations, and limited evidence from randomised clinical trialshave hindered translation to clinical practice.
Although phage research has seen spectacular growth in recent times around the world,5,6 Indian studies are grossly underrepresented in spite of the high rate of antibiotic-resistant infections. Many Indian research groups have investigated various aspects of phage biology, such as isolation from environmental and clinical sources, genome sequencing, biofilm assays, and limited in vivo experiments.7,8 Lack of translational and clinical studies with phages and insufficient regulatory and manufacturing paradigms are prominent in the Indian scenario.9,10 This scoping review was aimed at systematically reviewing the published studies on bacteriophages in India. Through the integration of thematic trends, research methods, applications, and gaps, this review places Indian endeavours in the international context of bacteriophage research and suggests directions for future research to meet the global standards and translational requirements.
Methodology
Eligibility criteria
Eligible studies were those that presented original research on phage or bacteriophage therapy in India with direct implications on human health (any setting, human, animal, or environmental). All study designs were eligible, provided the data were related to Indian contexts. Only English-language publications were eligible. As per the prior set exclusion criteria, we excluded studies conducted entirely in non-Indian settings; research into phages in exclusively environmental or agricultural contexts without any in vitro or in vivo experimentation; phage typing or surveillance studies conducted for the characterization of bacteria alone; studies of non-phage antibacterial agents unless phages were explicitly included; and conference abstracts or other reports without available full text. Environmental studies were included only if they provided direct implications for human health (e.g., phage presence in sewage as indicators of cholera outbreaks). Purely agricultural or ecological surveys without human-health relevance were excluded.
Information sources and search strategy
We searched several bibliographic databases to get a sense of the scope of phage studies. The major databases searched were PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library, all records from the earliest starting date for each database up to June 2025. No date restrictions were placed. Search terms intersected keywords for bacteriophage or phage therapy. The complete search strategies (for all databases) are available as supplementary information (Supplementary Table).
Study selection
All the records identified through the searches were uploaded onto the Rayyan web-based application for screening. After removing duplicates, titles and abstracts were screened independently by two reviewers against the eligibility criteria. Potentially eligible articles at this stage were reviewed in full text. Disagreements at either stage were resolved by discussion and, if required, adjudication by a third reviewer.
Data extraction
Information was extracted from the included studies on a broad Excel spreadsheet. Extracted variables mapped to the protocol’s pre-set list, including: bibliographic information (author, year, title, source); study design and setting; geographic region within India (state/region); target organisms and clinical indications; type of phage intervention or application (e.g. clinical therapy, environmental/biocontrol, veterinary use); outcomes and key findings; and specifically reported research gaps or future directions. One reviewer completed extracting data, and another verified accuracy. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus. No formal risk-of-bias evaluation was undertaken (in keeping with scoping review conventions), although methodological restrictions highlighted by authors were noted.
Data synthesis
The data extracted were compiled in tables and outlined descriptively. We tabulated study numbers by year, study design, and geography to define temporal and geographic trends. Cross-tabulations (e.g., by clinical versus environmental use) were created to identify areas of research concentration. Thematic analysis involved categorising studies by prominent domains (clinical, veterinary, agricultural, and environmental). We listed and summarised documented gaps (e.g., insufficiency of clinical trials, regulatory concerns, or low-strain repositories). Where possible, results were contrasted with international phage research patterns to frame the Indian literature. Results are given as narrative overviews augmented by tables and figures; statistical meta-analysis was not conducted.
Protocol
Methodological guidance was provided by the PRISMA-ScR statement. The study protocol and search strategies were designed a priori and registered with OSF (osf.io/y5wk6).
Results
The initial search of the databases produced 4,756 papers, and after excluding and/or removing duplicates, a total of 111 studies11-120 were included in this review ( Figure). Table I displays the key characteristics of the selected studies. It compiled study ID and location, publication year, region studied, study population or sample type, bacterial host(s), phage type or strain, phage isolation and characterisation methods, and the principal outcomes or findings. Most research was done on isolation and characterisation and therapeutic usage, then on biofilm disruption, environmental monitoring, combined therapy, and phage genomics. Less-represented topics are phage formulation and stability, phage-host interactions, and agro-food biocontrol.
- Study flowchart.
| Author, year, institute*, city, State | Study design, setting, and disease studied | Details of the bacteriophage studied and the main objective | Main results and conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|
|
London, 193011 The Mangaldai Medical Association, Panerihat, Assam (British India) |
Field outbreak case-series (uncontrolled trial) In vivo (clinical, outbreak setting) Bacillary dysentery (Shigella sp.) - tea estate outbreak |
Dysentery bacteriophage preparation from the Pasteur Institute, Shillong (targeting Shigella bacilli). Administered orally (2 doses/day, up to 4 in severe cases). Treat all patients in a dysentery outbreak with bacteriophage and observe clinical outcomes, comparing efficacy to standard treatments. |
129/141 (91.3%) phage-treated dysentery patients recovered. 108 cases (∼77%) responded to phage alone. Rapid symptom improvement, no recurrences. Highly effective. |
|
Asheshov et al12, 1931 Indian Research Fund Association, Bankipore, Bihar (British India) |
Open-label intervention (bacteriophage therapy) with historical control (pre-post comparison) In vivo (clinical, cholera patients in hospital) Cholera |
Cholera bacteriophage (potent lytic phage against Vibrio cholerae, prepared by the authors). Test the efficacy of bacteriophage therapy in reducing the mortality of severe cholera patients. |
Phage-treated cholera cases had drastically lower mortality (∼2.8%) compared to earlier cases (∼25%). Extremely effective treatment. |
|
Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata, West Bengal (British India) |
Environmental observational study (public health survey and review) Other (environmental water/sewage analysis in lab) Cholera and dysentery (epidemic patterns, water-borne diseases) |
Naturally occurring bacteriophages in sewage/water (cholera phage, dysentery phage, coliphages). Highlight bacteriophage’s role in epidemic dynamics and immunity, and report findings from bacteriophage observations in Indian public health. |
Seasonal phage populations correlated with disease prevalence. Direct sunlight rapidly inactivated phages. Bacteriophages likely explain recovery/immunity in epidemics. |
|
Dewan et al14, 1977 Central Research Institute, Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh |
Experimental phage isolation In vitro Salmonellosis |
Lytic phage against S. enteritidis. Isolate the lytic phage and evaluate its spectrum. |
Lysed 63% S. enteritidis; broad host range noted for control purposes. |
|
Banerjee et al15, 1991 National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi |
Laboratory molecular study In vitro (clinical samples) Hepatitis B virus in the blood |
M13 filamentous phage carrying a 3.2 kb HBV DNA insert (ssDNA probe, later dsDNA detection) Develop a sensitive phage-based assay for HBV detection |
Phage assay offered ∼4-6× higher sensitivity than conventional single-step hybridization; M13 phage DNA acts as a universal probe for HBV detection. |
|
Bhimani et al16, 1993 University of Bombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra |
Experimental (Lab) In vitro (dairy fermentation context) Dairy fermentation failure (lactococcal phage contamination) |
Four virulent Lactococcus lactis phages (FRC1-FRC4) from dairy samples. Small isometric head. Optimal adsorption ∼30°C, pH 7.2. Stable at 4°C (2 months), -20°C (14-16 months). Inhibited acid production by 42-61%. Study host-phage interactions and growth characteristics of lactococcal phages from Indian dairy environments, given their role in dairy fermentation failures. |
Lactococcal phages showed fast adsorption/growth, high thermal stability (in milk), and prolonged cold survival. Significantly inhibited starter culture performance. |
|
Pal et al17, 1993 Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata, West Bengal |
Lab-based induction study In vitro Cholera |
Prophage kappa in V. cholerae. Induce prophage and examine structure. |
Low induction rate, multiple defective forms seen. |
|
Abrol et al18, 1994 University of Delhi, New Delhi |
Laboratory molecular study In vitro (phage display) HIV infection (gp120-CD4 binding) |
M13 phage displaying the first 176 aa of human CD4 on coat protein gIII Display functional CD4 gp120-binding domains on phage surface |
Achieved multivalent display in the phage vector and monovalent in the phagemid. Phages from both vectors bound immobilized HIV gp120, confirming that the displayed CD4 domains were functional. |
|
Basu et al19, 2000 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Laboratory molecular analysis of bacterial strains In vitro (lab study) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae O1) |
CTXΦ (cholera toxin bacteriophage) integrated in classical V. cholerae O1 strains; one strain had 3 copies, another 4 (first report of such heterogeneity). Examine the arrangement of CTX prophages in classical biotype V. cholerae O1 isolates from India. |
Classical strains usually have two CTX prophages, but some had 3-4, showing unexpected diversity. First report of CTXΦ heterogeneity in India. |
|
Chakrabarti et al20, 2000 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Experimental (Lab) In vitro (typing scheme development) Cholera epidemiology (Vibrio cholerae O139 Bengal) |
Five newly isolated Vibrio cholerae O139 lytic phages from sewage. Distinct lytic patterns, morphologies, and DNA fingerprints. Used to develop a 10-type phage-typing scheme for O139. Develop and evaluate a reliable phage typing scheme for V. cholerae O139, aiding cholera outbreak investigation. |
Five-phage typing scheme differentiated V. cholerae O139 strains into 10 types (100% typability). Reflected the changing O139 epidemiology. Useful epidemiological tool. |
|
Deb et al21, 2003 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Experimental laboratory study (phage isolation and molecular characterization) In vitro (lab study on environmental isolation) None (target is Bosea thiooxidans, a sulfur-oxidizing soil bacterium) |
Phage TPC-1 - dsDNA Podoviridae phage (“thiophage”) infecting Bosea thiooxidans; icosahedral head, very short tail; linear ∼44 kb genome; capable of generalized transduction. Isolate and characterize bacteriophage of sulfur chemolithotroph Bosea thiooxidans (from Indian soil), including morphology, genome, and transduction ability. |
TPC-1 isolated, first known generalized transducing phage for a colorless sulfur bacterium. Podoviridae-like structure, ∼44kb linear genome. Useful for genetic studies. |
|
Nandi et al22, 2003 Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, West Bengal |
Molecular genetics (PFGE/Southern) In vitro (genomic analysis) Cholera (toxigenic V. cholerae O1 El Tor) |
CTXf filamentous prophage (encoding cholera toxin). Examine CTXf prophage arrays in pre- and post-O139 V. cholerae El Tor variants and effects on virulence. |
Pre-O139 El Tor strains carried two tandem CTXf prophages; post-O139 strains had a single CTXET prophage. Differences correlated with toxin production. |
|
Vinodkumar et al23, 2005 SS Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Hubballi, Karnataka |
Experimental (in vivo) Pre-clinical (mouse septicemia model) Neonatal sepsis (MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae) |
Lytic phage isolated against MDR K. pneumoniae (broad host range, active on multiple clinical isolates). Test if phage can rescue mice from lethal septicemia by MDR K. pneumoniae. |
100% of phage-treated mice survived lethal septicemia when phage was given early. ∼50% rescued even when delayed. Phage therapy completely protected mice. |
|
Vinod et al24, 2006 Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences, University, College of Fisheries, Mangalore, Karnataka |
Experimental study (phage isolation and lab trials) In vivo (pre-clinical microcosm and field trial) Luminous vibriosis in shrimp |
Phage isolated from shrimp farm; broad lytic spectrum; dsDNA, Siphoviridae. Evaluate the potential of Vibrio harveyi phage in controlling luminous vibriosis. |
Larval survival increased from 25% to 80%; effective biocontrol was shown. |
|
Barman et al25, 2007 University College of Medical Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, New Delhi |
Diagnostic accuracy study Clinical laboratory Pulmonary tuberculosis |
FastPlaque TB lytic phage (Mycobacteriophage D29) Compare the phage assay with smear and culture for TB diagnosis |
Phage test sensitivity ∼94% and specificity ∼94% versus smear; ∼92.9% sensitivity and 97.8% specificity versus culture. The phage assay was rapid, reliable, and cost-effective. |
|
Kumar et al26, 2008 Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, Tamil Nadu |
Experimental phage isolation In vitro Tuberculosis (Mtb) |
Che12 (temperate mycobacteriophage). Isolate and characterize phage Che12 and develop a luciferase reporter phage for TB diagnosis. |
Che12 is a temperate phage of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Engineered reporter phage produced sustained luminescence. Suitable for a rapid luciferase‐ based diagnostic assay for TB. |
|
Vinodkumar et al27, 2008 SS Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Davanagere, Karnataka |
Experimental (animal model) In vivo (mouse neonates) MDR Pseudomonas aeruginosa septicemia (neonatal mice) |
Phage CSV-31: lytic phage active against clinical MDR S. aureus To evaluate whether phage CSV-31 can rescue neonatal mice from lethal MDR P. aeruginosa septicemia. |
Phage CSV-31 therapy rescued 100% of mice when given 45 min post-infection and ∼50% even at the moribund stage. Heat-inactivated phage was ineffective, confirming the active phage’s critical role against MDR P. aeruginosa septicemia. |
|
Bhowmick et al28, 2009 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Animal experiment (rabbit RITARD model for cholera prophylaxis) In vivo - pre-clinical (rabbit model) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae O1 infection) |
Cocktail of five lytic V. cholerae O1 El Tor phages (B1-B5) at ∼1×108 PFU/mL, administered orally. Explore the use of V. cholerae phage cocktail as a biocontrol/prophylactic agent to prevent cholera infection in an animal model. |
Phage-treated rabbits had milder diarrhea, ∼100-fold lower intestinal bacterial counts, and less intestinal damage. Phage prophylaxis could be valuable. |
|
Das et al29, 2009 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Environmental surveillance study (field sampling and lab analysis) Other (in situ environmental monitoring with lab assays) Cholera (environmental presence of V. cholerae O1/O139) |
Vibriophages specific to V. cholerae O1 and O139 were present in Kolkata’s freshwater bodies; O1 phages year-round, O139 mainly monsoon. Investigate the distribution of V. cholerae O1 and O139 bacteriophages in Kolkata surface waters and evaluate phage surveillance as a biomonitoring tool. |
V. cholerae O1 phages isolated at all sites, peaking in the monsoon. O139-specific phages were also found. Monitoring environmental phages effectively indicates cholera pathogens. |
|
Kumari et al30, 2010 Panjab University, Chandigarh |
Animal study In vivo Burn wound Klebsiella infection |
Phage Kpn5 against K. pneumoniae. Test the efficacy of the phage in mice. |
High survival, reduced inflammation; phage stable in mice. |
|
Raychoudhuri et al31, 2010 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Retrospective genetic analysis (strain surveillance over time) In vitro (lab analysis of stored clinical isolates) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae O139, phage-mediated toxin gene variations) |
CTXΦ (cholera toxin phage) prophages in V. cholerae O139; identified new ctxB alleles (genotypes 4 and 5) and rstR alleles forming novel CTX prophage variants. Examine Vibrio cholerae O139 strains (1993-2005) for changes in CTX prophage genetic makeup (ctxB and rstR alleles) and track new toxin gene genotypes. |
Two novel ctxB genotypes (4 and 5) were identified in O139’s CTX phages. Original El Tor CTX disappeared. Rapid shifts in CTX prophage genotype may explain O139’s non-persistence. |
|
Ravi et al32, 2010 School of Natural Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka |
Observational (survey) Field and laboratory (PCR survey) N/A (Wolbachia sp. in mosquito vectors) |
Phage WO of Wolbachia endosymbiont (detected via Wolbachia Orf7 gene). Determine the prevalence of Wolbachia sp. and its phage WO in wild Indian mosquitoes. |
Wolbachia sp. was found in 8 of 20 mosquito species. All Wolbachia-positive mosquitoes also harbored phage WO. Co-infection suggests widespread phage WO. |
|
Vinod et al33, 2010 SS Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Davangere, Karnataka |
Experimental (Lab) In vitro (surface disinfection) Surface contamination (Staphylococcus aureus in lab/hospital environment) |
Broad-spectrum Staphylococcus aureus lytic phage (φCSV, Siphoviridae); also, phages for E. faecalis, P. aeruginosa, and K. pneumoniae. Evaluate bacteriophage as a bio-disinfectant under various conditions and compare efficacy to chemical disinfectants. |
Aerosolized phage eliminated >99.99% of S. aureus on surfaces, retained activity with detergents/organic matter. Phages can serve as effective, target-specific bio-disinfectants. |
|
Kumari et al34, 2011 Panjab University, Chandigarh |
Experimental (Animal) In vivo (mouse burn model) Burn wound infection (Klebsiella pneumoniae B5055) |
Lytic Klebsiella-specific phage Kpn5; highly lytic against K. pneumoniae; formulated in hydrogel for topical application. Compare the efficacy of topical phage therapy with standard antimicrobials (silver nitrate, gentamicin) in treating burn wound infections. |
Single applications of phage Kpn5 significantly protected mice, reducing mortality to near 0%. More effective than multiple-dose antibiotics. |
|
Shukla et al35, 2011 College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh |
Observational survey of environmental samples In vitro (laboratory) Livestock-associated bacterial contamination (antibiotic resistance context) |
Lytic phages from livestock farm waste against Bacillus subtilis and E. coli (hosts). Detect bacteriophages in sewage from various livestock farms and assess recovery rates. |
Phages recovered from pig (67%), cattle (63%), buffalo (50%), and goat (13%) wastewater, but not poultry. B. subtilis facilitated higher isolation rates, highlighting farm waste as a rich phage source. |
|
Vinodkumar et al36, 2011 SS Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Davangere, Karnataka |
Prospective clinical and laboratory study (MDR Enterococcus surveillance and phage isolation) In vivo (clinical isolates from diabetic foot patients) and in vitro (phage isolation in the lab) Diabetic foot infections caused by multidrug-resistant Enterococcus (especially E. faecalis) |
Enterococcus faecalis lytic phage ØSH-56 (Siphoviridae); forms plaques on ∼79% of MDR E. faecalis isolates (inhibits ∼8% more); species-specific (no E. faecium lysis). Draw attention to antibiotic-resistant Enterococci in diabetic foot infections and explore phage therapy for these MDR Enterococci. |
65.6% of Enterococcus isolates were MDR. Phage ØSH-56 lysed 79% of MDR E. faecalis, effectively targeting >86% of isolates. Potent activity against diabetic foot infections. |
|
Abhishek et al37, 2012 SS Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Davangere, Karnataka |
Experimental (in vitro) Laboratory (disinfectant assay) N/A (Hospital surface disinfection) |
Lytic phages (e.g., against Staphylococcus aureus; also tested on Enterococcus faecalis, etc.). Evaluate bacteriophage as a “bio-disinfectant” for hospital settings. |
Phage aerosol significantly reduced S. aureus viable counts on lab surfaces, even with interfering substances. Phage retained lytic activity. Proposed as a biological disinfectant. |
|
Ahiwale et al38, 2013 Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra |
Lab formulation study In vitro (water microcosms) Waterborne bacterial infections (e.g., Salmonella Paratyphi B) |
Phages phiSPB (Salmonella Paratyphi B), BVPaP-3 (Pseudomonas), and KPP (Klebsiella). Develop liquid phage formulations to disinfect waterborne pathogens. |
Phages are viable for ∼8-10 months at 4°C in broth. PsiSPB killed ∼80% of log-phase S. Paratyphi B in 24h. Liquid phage formulations can reduce waterborne pathogens. |
|
Chhibber et al39, 2013 Panjab University, Chandigarh |
Animal model (preclinical) In vivo (mouse model) MRSA diabetic foot infection |
MRSA-targeting phage MR-10 (lytic phage). Evaluate the combination therapy of phage MR-10 with antibiotic linezolid against MRSA foot infection in diabetic mice. |
Single-dose phage therapy alone resolved infection similarly to linezolid. Combined phage + linezolid is significantly more effective, with faster clearance, accelerated healing. |
|
Jaiswal et al40, 2013 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Animal experiment (rabbit cholera model, phage therapy timing study) In vivo - pre-clinical (rabbit model) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae O1 infection) |
Cocktail of five lytic vibriophages (B1-B5) at ∼1×108 PFU dose, administered orally. Assess the efficacy of oral five-phage cocktails in treating cholera infection in rabbits, comparing prophylactic vs therapeutic administration. |
Oral phage cocktail administration after infection significantly reduced V. cholerae shedding. Pre-exposure (prophylactic) treatment was not effective. |
|
Jain et al41, 2014 Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh |
Laboratory characterization In vitro Brucellosis |
Brucellaphage ΦLd (lytic to Brucella abortus). Characterize an Indian B. abortus-infecting phage morphologically and genetically. |
Phage ΦLd produces ∼1-4 mm plaques on B. abortus.Podoviridae morphology. Genome dsDNA (∼56-81 kb). Distinct RFLP/RAPD patterns, useful for strain typing. |
|
Jaiswal et al42, 2014 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Animal experiment (adult mouse cholera model, phage vs antibiotic vs ORS) In vivo - pre-clinical (mouse model) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae O1 infection) |
Cocktail of five lytic V. cholerae O1 phages (B1-B5); given orally at 1×108 PFU per dose, once daily for 3 days post-infection. Establish oral phage cocktail therapy in a mouse cholera model and compare its effectiveness to ciprofloxacin and oral rehydration therapy. |
Phage therapy reduced V. cholerae load by ∼3 log₁₀ CFU/g. Ciprofloxacin was more effective, but the phage cocktail still substantially lowered infection. |
|
Kumar et al43, 2014 Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi |
Epidemiological and molecular study (cholera outbreak strain analysis) In vitro - other (lab analysis of outbreak isolates) Cholera outbreaks (two outbreaks in Maharashtra, India, 2012) |
CTXΦ (cholera toxin phage) carrying the ctxB7 allele integrated in Vibrio cholerae O1 Ogawa El Tor variant strains. Characterize V. cholerae O1 strains from two cholera outbreaks in 2012 (south-western India) to understand the spread and origin. |
Outbreak strains were a single clone: V. cholerae O1 Ogawa El Tor with ctxB7. Traced to fecal contamination. These variants pose a public health concern. |
|
Mishra et al44, 2014 Central Institute for Research on Goats, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh |
Laboratory study (phage characterization) In vitro (pre-clinical lab) Goat mastitis (S. aureus infection) |
Five lytic S. aureus phages from soil/goat feces showed broad activity, PCR-confirmed, and remained stable at 30-40°C, pH 6.5-7.5, and were viable long-term. Isolate, identify, and evaluate the therapeutic potential of lytic phages against S. aureus causing mastitis in goats, including stability and host range. |
All phage isolates tolerated moderate heat/neutral pH well. Three phages (CIRG/1, /4, /5) lysed over 80% of diverse S. aureus mastitis isolates. Promising candidates for goat mastitis. |
|
Mookerjee et al45, 2014 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Field and lab study (outbreak monitoring) Other (drinking water outbreak samples) Waterborne jaundice (coliphage presence) |
Somatic coliphages in drinking water; evaluated as outbreak biomarkers. Assess coliphages as water contamination indicators during a jaundice outbreak. |
Modified method detected 80% vs 55% (standard); better outbreak monitoring tool. |
|
Sangha et al46, 2014 Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab |
Laboratory study (phage isolation and proteomic characterization) In vitro (sewage samples tested in the lab) Staphylococcus aureus infections (antibiotic-resistant strains, e.g., mastitis) |
S. aureus lytic phage ΦMSP, isolated from sewage, forms clear plaques and has icosahedral morphology. SDS-PAGE revealed five major proteins, including a ∼70 kDa peptidoglycan hydrolase. Infection induced 26 unique host proteins. Isolate lytic bacteriophage against S. aureus from sewage and characterize it (including proteomic analysis) as an alternative to antibiotics. |
Phage ΦMSP isolated, produced clear lysis. Icosahedral particle. It contained five prominent proteins and a 70 kDa peptidoglycan hydrolase. Induced 26 unique proteins in the host. Potent lytic phage. |
|
Surekhamol et al47, 2014 Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, Kerala |
Laboratory study (in vitro phage isolation and characterization) In vitro (lab isolation from shrimp farm samples) Shrimp vibriosis (luminous Vibrio harveyi infection) |
Six lytic Vibrio harveyi bacteriophages (Caudovirales: Myoviridae and Siphoviridae) with broad host range (lyse 87 V. harveyi isolates and some other Vibrio/Aeromonas pathogens). Find and characterize broad-spectrum lytic phages as eco-friendly alternatives to antibiotics for controlling Vibrio harveyi in shrimp aquaculture. |
Six selected phages effectively lysed a wide range of V. harveyi (and some other pathogens) without affecting beneficial microbes. Promising biocontrol agent. |
|
Basu et al48, 2015 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental (animal model) In vivo (mouse wound model) Burn wound infection (MDR P. aeruginosa biofilm) |
Cocktail of phages active against MDR P. aeruginosa biofilms Test phage therapy against P. aeruginosa biofilms in a wound model |
Phage therapy caused ∼100-fold reduction in bacterial counts (from 3.87×106 to 3.52×104 CFU) compared to minimal reduction in controls; phage titers rose accordingly, indicating active bacterial killing. |
| Jain et al49, 2015Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh |
Laboratory characterization In vitro Brucellosis |
Brucellaphage φLd (lytic B. abortus phage). Characterize Brucella phage φLd using RAPD and ISSR molecular markers. |
RAPD gave distinct fingerprints for φLd. ISSR revealed prevalent microsatellite repeats. Molecular fingerprints define genomic composition, aid diversity/typing studies. |
|
Nivas et al50, 2015 Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu |
Experimental study (cross-sectional phage isolation from hospital sewage) In vitro (lab isolation and characterization) Infections by multi-drug resistant (MDR) and ESBL-producing bacteria (hospital-acquired infections) |
46 lytic phages isolated against 20 MDR/ESBL bacterial strains from hospital effluents; seven potent phages selected (Mm81, Ec84, Ps85, En833, Sal836, Ec8_ATCC, Ec8_PMG). Mm81 (Siphoviridae), Ec84 (Podoviridae). Isolate, screen, and characterize effective lytic phages targeting MDR/ESBL-producing pathogenic bacteria from hospital wastewater. |
46 distinct phages obtained. Seven potent phages were characterized. Each had a narrow host range. Two morphotypes: siphovirus (Mm81) and podovirus (Ec84). Abundant phages in hospital effluents. |
|
Singla et al51, 2015 Panjab University, Chandigarh |
Pre-clinical animal study (therapeutic and prophylactic efficacy in a mouse model) In vivo - pre-clinical (mouse model) Lobar pneumonia caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae |
Bacteriophage KPO1K2 - depolymerase-producing lytic phage specific to K. pneumoniae (Podoviridae, T7-like); broad host range; stable pH 4-11; short latent period, large burst size. Used free and liposome-encapsulated bacteriophage. Assess the therapeutic and prophylactic potential of liposome-encapsulated K. pneumoniae phage (KPO1K2) vs free phage in the murine pneumonia model. |
Liposome-entrapped phages were superior. Survived delayed therapy (72h post-infection). A single liposomal dose prevented pneumonia (48h prior). Greater bacterial reduction, balanced cytokine response. |
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Shivaswamy et al52, 2015 SS Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Davangere, Karnataka |
Experimental in vivo Pre-clinical (diabetic rat model) Chronic wound infection (MDR Acinetobacter baumannii) |
Lytic phage isolated against A. baumannii (active on β-lactamase-producing MDR strains). Test phage efficacy in resolving MDR A. baumannii wound infections in diabetic hosts. |
Phage-treated diabetic rats showed significantly faster clearance and wound healing than untreated or colistin-treated. Phage therapy was promising against resistant infections. |
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Chadha et al53, 2016 Panjab University, Chandigarh |
Animal experimental study (burn wound infection model in mice) In vivo - pre-clinical (mouse model) Burn wound infection (Klebsiella pneumoniae) |
Five lytic phages (Kpn1-Kpn5) specific to K. pneumoniae B5055; tested individually and as a cocktail. Evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of a single phage vs a five-phage cocktail in K. pneumoniae burn wound infections in mice. |
The phage cocktail was most effective (∼6-log₁₀ reduction), prevented resistance emergence, and accelerated healing. Effective therapeutic strategy. |
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Dash et al54, 2016 ICAR-Project Directorate on Foot and Mouth Disease, Mukteswar, Mukteswar, Uttarakhand |
Experimental (in vitro) Laboratory (Phage Display Library) N/A (Camel nanobody library) |
M13 phagemid vectors for VHH library construction. Develop a naïve camelid VHH library via phage display. |
Library size ∼105-107 clones with diverse VHH sequences; optimized expression in E. coli. Source of functional nanobodies. |
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Kishor et al55, 2016 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Pre-clinical trial (animal experiment) In vivo (pre-clinical, rabbits) Chronic osteomyelitis (MRSA bone infection) |
Cocktail of seven lytic Staphylococcus aureus phages (SA-BHU1, 2, 8, 15, 21, 37, 47) from sewage/river/pond water. Safe in rabbits. Myoviridae, broad anti-S. aureus activity. Evaluate the efficacy of S. aureus-specific bacteriophage therapy in treating chronic MRSA osteomyelitis in a rabbit model. |
Rabbits treated with phage cocktail showed marked recovery (∼2 wk). 100% recovered with no adverse effects. Significant potential for curing difficult bone infections. |
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Stalin et al56, 2016 Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu |
Laboratory and microcosm study (shrimp Vibrio infection and phage treatment) In vivo - other (shrimp larvae microcosm) Vibriosis in shrimp (Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection causing Early Mortality Syndrome) |
One lytic phage (VVP1) specific to V. parahaemolyticus (Myoviridae); effective against virulent V. parahaemolyticus and some V. alginolyticus strains. Applied at ∼2.3×1010 PFU. Isolate and characterize V. parahaemolyticus from shrimp farms and its phage, and evaluate phage efficacy in protecting shrimp larvae. |
Phage treatment markedly improved the survival of V. parahaemolyticus-infected shrimp larvae. Phage VVP1 is an eco-friendly strategy to prevent/reduce shrimp bacterial disease in aquaculture. |
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Ahiwale et al57, 2017 Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra |
Experimental biotechnology study (phage-enabled nanoparticle synthesis) In vitro (laboratory nanotechnology research) Bacterial biofilm-associated infections (e.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm) |
A lytic Salmonella Paratyphi B phage was used as a biological scaffold to synthesize poly-disperse (20-100 nm), variably shaped gold nanoparticles, which showed ∼70-80% anti-P. aeruginosa biofilm efficacy. Develop a “green” synthesis route for gold nanoparticles using bacteriophage as a nanobiotemplate and evaluate antimicrobial/anti-biofilm activities of phage-mediated AuNPs. |
Successful biosynthesis of poly-disperse AuNPs (∼20-100 nm). Phage-derived AuNPs exhibited antibacterial effects and drastically reduced P. aeruginosa biofilm formation (∼80% inhibition). |
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Chadha et al58, 2017 Panjab University, Chandigarh |
Experimental mouse model study In vivo Burn wound infection (K. pneumoniae) |
Five-phage cocktail; free and liposome-encapsulated forms compared. Evaluate if liposome encapsulation improves phage therapy efficacy. |
Liposome-phages were more effective; delayed therapy was still successful. |
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Ghugare et al59, 2017 CSIR- National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Maharashtra |
Experimental method development study (novel phage isolation/enrichment technique) In vitro (laboratory method using environmental samples) N/A (method applicable to various bacterial targets for phage isolation) |
Various host-specific bacteriophages from environmental samples were captured and enriched using new membrane filtration immobilization techniques. Develop a simple, rapid method for isolating and concentrating bacteriophages specific to a given bacterial host by coupling host immobilization on a membrane with filtration. |
Membrane-based method enabled isolation/enrichment of host-specific phages from low counts. Phage yields increased by orders of magnitude. Highly effective one-step method. |
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Kumar et al60, 2017 Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand |
Laboratory study (phage isolation from animal farm waste and characterization) In vitro (phages from pig and poultry farm sewage) Salmonellosis in livestock (zoonotic Salmonella sp. infections in pigs and poultry) |
Five lytic Salmonella bacteriophages (PSP1, PSP4, PSP5, PSP6, PSP7) from swine/poultry sewage; ∼42 kb genomes; 3 Siphoviridae, 2 Podoviridae; relatively sensitive to heat/low pH. Isolate and characterize bacteriophages as cost-effective biocontrol agents against pathogenic Salmonella in food animals. |
Five phages were classified. Two (PSP4, PSP7) showed a broad lytic host range. All were inactivated at high temperature/low pH. Potential to reduce Salmonella sp. in farm environments. |
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Shende et al61, 2017 College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Durg, Chhattisgarh |
Experimental (descriptive) In vitro (laboratory) Common bacterial pathogens (Bacillus, E. coli) |
Six phages isolated from farm waste: three against Bacillus subtilis (BsHR1-BsHR3) and three against E. coli (EHR1-EHR3). High titers (1010-1012 PFU/mL). Stable at 70 °C for 2-3 min; inactivated at pH <3 or >11. Phage EHR1 had the broadest host range. Isolate phages from cattle/buffalo farm waste that lyse common pathogens (B. subtilis, E. coli) and characterize their morphology, stability, and host range. |
Phage recovery 78.6% (cattle), 72.2% (buffalo). Six morphotypes were isolated. Phage viability is high at 70 °C for minutes; inactivated at extreme pH. EHR1 had the broadest host range. |
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Stalin et al62, 2017 Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu |
Experimental lab and larval trial In vivo (shrimp larvae) Vibrio harveyi in shrimp |
Three phages (2 Myoviridae, 1 Siphoviridae); characterized and used in a cocktail. Evaluate phage cocktail to prevent V. harveyi in aquaculture. |
Survival increased significantly with phage use, effective aquaculture biocontrol. |
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Bajpai et al63, 2018 University of Delhi, New Delhi |
Experimental (Lab) In vitro (isolation and genome analysis) Tuberculosis (drug-resistant Mycobacteriumtuberculosis) |
Mycobacteriophages - 17 phages isolated; 9 lysed M. tuberculosis H37Rv. Novel phage PDRPv (Siphoviridae, cluster B1) characterized: 69,110 bp dsDNA genome, 106 ORFs. Discover and characterize new anti-tubercular phages from India as alternative strategies against drug-resistant TB. |
17 mycobacteriophages were isolated, 9 infected virulent M. tuberculosis. PDRPv was identified as a novel B1-subcluster Siphovirus. Potential new antimicrobials for TB. |
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Chinnadurai et al64, 2018 Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu |
Experimental (Genomic) In vitro (genome sequencing) Water-borne E. coli contamination (aquaculture effluent) |
Escherichia coli phage CMSTMSU - lytic phage from shrimp farm effluent. Draft genome ∼233 kb (∼938 predicted coding genes) - jumbo phage. Many genes relate to nucleotide metabolism. Publish draft genome sequence of newly isolated E. coli phage from aquaculture wastewater, as a resource for phage biology and potential biocontrol. |
The genome of phage CMSTMSU was remarkably large (∼938 ORFs). Many genes were involved in nucleotide binding/hydrolysis. Indicative of a jumbo phage. Groundwork for biocontrol. |
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Ganaie et al65, 2018 Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Jammu, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir |
Laboratory research (isolation and characterization) In vitro (laboratory study) Bovine mastitis (Staphylococcus aureus infection) |
Two lytic S. aureus phages: SAJK-IND (Myoviridae) and MSP (Podoviridae). SAJK-IND ∼100% lytic on mastitis S. aureus strains vs ∼40% for MSP. Isolate and characterize bacteriophages against S. aureus from India with potential use in therapy for bovine mastitis. |
Isolated two virulent phages, SAJK-IND (broad lytic coverage) and MSP (narrower). Stable at wide temperature/pH. It was promising against bovine mastitis. |
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Raj et al66, 2018 Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Mangaluru, Karnataka |
Experimental (lab isolation) In vitro (environmental isolates) Antibiotic-resistant E. coli (blaCTX-M ESBL) |
T4-like E. coli phages (Myoviridae) carrying blaCTX-M genes. Determine prevalence and characterize phages harboring blaCTX-M in environmental E. coli. |
Of 36 phages, 7 (20%) carried Group 1 blaCTX-M; formed 4 distinct RFLP groups. Five confirmed T4-like Myoviridae. These phages could transduce blaCTX-M. |
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Poduval et al67, 2018 Goa University, Taleigao Plateau, Goa |
Experimental laboratory study (marine phage isolation and characterization) In vitro (lab, environmental isolate) None (marine bacterial host - polysaccharide-degrading Microbulbifer CMC-5) |
Phage φMC1, a novel virulent tailless phage (Corticoviridae) for Microbulbifer CMC-5; icosahedral ∼60 nm head, dsDNA ∼48.5 kb; has lipid membrane, requires Ca/Mg ions. Isolate a new bacteriophage specific to the marine bacterium Microbulbifer sp. CMC-5 and characterize its morphology, host range, and genomic features. |
Phage φMC1 cross-infected two Microbulbifer type strains. Tailless, 60 nm icosahedral head (Corticoviridae). dsDNA genome (∼48.5kb). Infectivity reduced by solvents, required Ca/Mg. |
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Sarkar et al68, 2018 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Experimental laboratory study (phage isolation and typing study) In vitro (laboratory) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae O1 infection) |
Five novel vibriophages specific to Vibrio cholerae O1, from environmental water sources in Bengal, broad host range (lysed 100% of 300 V. cholerae O1 strains); myophages and podophages; varied tolerance to pH, temperature, and solvents. Isolate new broad host range bacteriophages of V. cholerae O1 and characterize them for inclusion in an expanded phage typing scheme. |
All 300 V. cholerae O1 strains were typable (100% typeability). Phages were distinct from existing typing phages. Variation in resistance. Novel and broad host range. Improve discrimination of V. cholerae strains. |
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Sharma et al69, 2018 University of Delhi, New Delhi |
Environmental metagenomics Other N/A |
65 bacteriophage and 59 archaeal virus genomes. Characterize the hot spring viral community. |
High phage diversity, core genome conserved in hot springs. |
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Ahamed et al70, 2019 Acharya Prafulla Chandra College, Kolkata, West Bengal |
Lab experimental In vitro Shigellosis |
Phage Sfin-1. Isolate and characterize an anti-Shigella phage. |
Active against MDR Shigella sp., T1-like lytic phage. |
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Gavel et al71, 2019 Homi Bhabha Cancer Hospital, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental laboratory study (genomic characterization of phages) In vitro (laboratory) Typhoid fever (Salmonella Typhi infection) |
Two lytic bacteriophages specific to Vi capsular antigen of Salmonella Typhi, from water samples in Varanasi, distinct plaque morphologies but nearly identical genomic DNA restriction patterns. Genotypically characterize Salmonella Typhi Vi antigen-specific bacteriophages using molecular tools, for future phage-based therapeutics for typhoid. |
Two Vi-specific S. Typhi phages were isolated, amplified. Nearly identical restriction digest patterns, indicating genetic similarity. Groundwork for genomic characterization of S. Typhi Vi phages. |
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Choudhury et al72, 2019 Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences, Mangalore, Karnataka |
Experimental laboratory study (in vitro phage efficacy assays) In vitro (aquaculture pathogen model) Luminous vibriosis in shrimp (Vibrio harveyi infection) |
Lytic bacteriophage specific to Vibrio harveyi; tested alone and in combination with recombinant shrimp lysozyme. Determine how environmental factors (salinity, pH) affect Vibrio harveyi phage activity and if lysozyme improves performance. |
Phage activity was optimal at 25 ppt salinity and pH 7. Lysozyme significantly enhanced phage efficacy, enabling better bacterial clearance. A combined approach suggested. |
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Kumar et al73, 2019 Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu |
Experimental laboratory study (in vitro phage isolation and testing) In vitro (lab study using clinical isolates) Staphylococcal food poisoning (S. aureus-induced foodborne illness) |
Specific lytic bacteriophage for Staphylococcus aureus isolated from sewage in Tirunelveli; enriched and purified. Isolate and purify phage specific to S. aureus from local sewage and evaluate its ability to eliminate food poisoning-causing S. aureus. |
S. aureus-specific phage isolated from sewage. Produced clear plaques, indicating strong lytic activity. Promising phage for combating staphylococcal foodborne illness. |
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Sethuvel et al74, 2019 Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu |
Observational WGS analysis In vitro Diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheriae) |
Tox gene-bearing prophages (corynephages β, ω, γ); found in toxigenic strains. Study the prophage diversity and toxigenicity of diphtheria isolates. |
All toxigenic strains carried phages; non-toxigenic did not; phage was essential for toxin. |
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Nath et al75, 2019 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental animal study In vivo (pre-clinical) Pseudomonas aeruginosa septicemia |
Cocktail of three lytic phages specific for P. aeruginosa (no specific names given). Test efficacy of a P. aeruginosa phage cocktail in burn-induced immunocompromised mouse model of septicemia. |
Simultaneous or delayed phage therapy prevented mortality in acute infection. A high dose (1012 PFU/mL) caused 60% mortality at 6 h post-infection, while lower doses (10⁸–101⁰) were fully protective. |
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Satish et al76, 2019 University of Mumbai, Mumbai, Maharashtra |
Experimental (in vitro) In vitro (laboratory) Mycobacterial species (safety/general study) |
A mycobacteriophage (formerly isolated) capable of infecting M. smegmatis and multiple Mycobacterium sp. (e.g., M. fortuitum, kansasii, avium, tuberculosis). Studied for growth parameters. To characterize growth parameters (adsorption time, temperature tolerance, stability, cation effects) of a mycobacteriophage that infects diverse Mycobacterium sp. |
The phage adsorbed to hosts within ∼15 min, propagated optimally at 37 °C, and remained stable up to 42 °C. Infectivity improved with Ca2⁺. These findings support phage use against mycobacterial infections. |
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Bhardwaj et al66, 2020 Panjab University, Chandigarh |
Experimental laboratory study (in vitro phage efficacy study) In vitro (laboratory) Chronic periodontitis (oral Enterococcus faecalis infections) |
Novel lytic Enterococcus phage (from sewage) specific to E. faecalis; Siphoviridae; narrow host range (infective against drug-resistant oral E. faecalis from periodontitis). Isolate Enterococcus faecalis bacteriophage and evaluate its ability to inhibit biofilms formed by drug-resistant enterococcal isolates from chronic periodontitis patients. |
Enterococcal biofilms showed a marked reduction in viability/activity (5-log₁₀ decrease in viable cells). Phage effective but limited host range. Potential for phage therapy for chronic periodontitis. |
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Chakrabarti et al78, 2020 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Phenotypic characterization study Multi-centre strain surveillance (lab-based) Cholera (V. cholerae O1 ElTor) |
A panel of 10 was used to type the isolates. S5 phage demonstrated the broadest lytic activity across isolates. To determine the dominant biotypes, serotypes, and phage types of V. cholerae O1 strains circulating in India and to assess phage susceptibility patterns. |
Phage type 27 emerged as the most dominant, with Ogawa as the prevalent serotype. Nearly 100% of isolates were typeable with the new scheme. S5 phage showed broad lytic efficacy. |
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Archana et al79, 2021 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Pre-clinical in vivo study (animal experiment on phage immunogenicity) In vivo (rabbit model, laboratory setting) Bacterial infections (E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. Typhi, S. aureus) - assessing immune response to phage therapy |
Five lytic bacteriophages, each specific to a major pathogen, are purified to high titer (∼109 PFU) and injected into rabbits. Determine if repeated parenteral administration of bacteriophages elicits a neutralizing antibody response in a mammalian host, potentially diminishing phage therapeutic efficacy. |
Neutralizing antibodies appeared after ∼3 wk of repeated dosing, completely neutralizing phages by weeks 3-5. Implies that host immunity can hamper prolonged phage treatment. |
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Kaur et al80, 2021 Mehr Chand Mahajan DAV College for Women, Chandigarh |
Experimental (animal model) In vivo (murine preclinical) MRSA-induced skin/soft-tissue infection |
Staphylococcus phage MR-5: a lytic Myoviridae phage with broad host range against MRSA and MSSA. To evaluate the in vivo antibacterial efficacy of phage MR-5 (alone and with linezolid) in a mouse subcutaneous “air pouch” model of MRSA infection. |
Phage MR-5 reduced bacterial load in pouch fluid; combined with linezolid, it cleared the infection faster. The air-pouch model effectively evaluated phage efficacy, highlighting MR-5’s potential against MRSA SSTI. |
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Goa University, Taleigao Plateau, Goa |
Environmental isolation study (extremophile) In vitro (environmental lab study) N/A (Thermophiles in hot spring; biofouling context) |
Novel thermophilic Meiothermus bacterium (JE2) and its lytic phage vB_Msp_JE2 from Rajwadi hot spring. Phage was stable at pH 6-8, 60°C; inactivated above 75°C. Isolate the thermophilic bacterium and its infecting phage from the Rajwadi hot spring, expanding knowledge beyond Himalayan hot springs. |
Moderately thermophilic Meiothermus sp. JE2 and lytic phage vB_Msp_JE2 isolated. Phage propagated at 60°C, viable at pH 6.0-8.0. First Meiothermus phage from India’s west coast hot springs. |
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Jagdale et al82, 2021 Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra |
Greenhouse experiment (phage formulation for plant disease control) In vivo - other (plant greenhouse pot trial) Pomegranate bacterial blight (Pseudomonas sp. infection) |
Two lytic phages (vB_Psp.S_PRϕL2, vB_Psp.M_SSϕL8) were specific to the Pseudomonas pathogen. Formulated in 0.5% whitening clay for stability. Develop and evaluate a phage-based liquid formulation as a “green” biocontrol tool for managing pomegranate bacterial blight. |
0.5% clay-phage formulation effectively controlled pomegranate blight, reducing disease incidence more than antibiotics. Phage-based foliar sprays show promise. |
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Mallick et al83, 2021 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Laboratory study (isolation and full characterization of novel phage) In vitro (microbiology and genomic analysis) Shigellosis (severe diarrheal disease caused by Shigella sp.) |
Phage Sfk20 is a newly isolated T4-like lytic myovirus (∼165 kb dsDNA) that infects multiple Shigella species. It has a ∼20 min latent period, ∼123 PFU/cell burst size, and strong anti-biofilm activity. Isolate novel bacteriophage from diarrheal outbreak site and comprehensively characterize its morphology, biology, and genome to assess therapeutic potential. |
Phage Sfk20 showed a broad lytic spectrum within Shigella, rapid replication, and no undesirable genes. Significant biofilm inhibition. Promising candidate for MDR Shigella therapy. |
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Manohar et al84, 2021 Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu |
Observational cohort study (mother-infant pair gut metagenomic analysis) In vivo (human observational, clinical samples) None (healthy mother-infant gut phageome composition) |
Gut bacteriophages in fecal samples; 41 distinct phage species identified (mostly Caudovirales); several phages prevalent (>50%) in both mothers and infants. Identify and characterize gut phageome in an Indian mother-child cohort using reduced metagenomic sequencing (RMS). |
Forty-one phage species were detected, with higher diversity in mothers. No strong vertical transmission observed. Caudovirales dominated. RMS proved effective for phageome profiling. |
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Nisha et al85, 2021 All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi |
Experimental laboratory study (UV disinfection efficacy demonstration) In vitro (laboratory) COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2 surface contamination and transmission) |
Acinetobacter phage AIIMS-Ab6 (targets MDR Acinetobacter baumannii) and Staphylococcus phage BHU-22 (targets MRSA); used as surrogate viruses. Evaluate the effectiveness of UV-C radiation in inactivating viruses using bacteriophages as surrogate indicators, establishing optimal UV dose for preventing COVID-19 transmission. |
Staphylococcus phage BHU-22 inactivated after ∼5 minutes of UV; Acinetobacter phage AIIMS-Ab6 after ∼10 minutes. UV-C effective disinfectant. Phages are useful surrogate markers. |
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Patel et al86, 2021 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental study (dose-timing trial in mice) In vivo (pre-clinical, mice) Septicemia (A. baumannii infection, immunocompromised host) |
Cocktail of three lytic Acinetobacter baumannii phages (φAb4, φAb7, φAb14). Each dose was 100 µl of 109 PFU/ml. Lower doses (107-105 PFU) were tested for late treatment. Evaluate the effect of phage therapy timing and dosage on survival in immunocompromised mice with colistin-resistant A. baumannii septicemia. |
Prophylactic/simultaneous phage prevented mortality (0% death). Therapeutic phage at 6h/12h yielded partial protection. High doses at 24h caused mortality, but lower doses eliminated deaths. |
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Patel et al87, 2021 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Clinical trial (prospective) Clinical (patients) Chronic non‐healing wounds (diabetic and non-diabetic ulcers) |
Custom phage cocktails/monophage (targeting wound isolates). Test the efficacy of personalized topical phage therapy in non-healing wounds. |
Overall, 81.2% of wounds were cured (90.5% non-diabetic, 74.1% diabetic). Significantly improved clinical outcomes. Customized phage application appears promising for chronic ulcers. |
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Rai et al88, 2021 CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, Maharashtra |
Laboratory study (phage isolation from wastewater and genomic characterization) In vitro (environmental water sample analysis) MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) contamination in wastewater |
One lytic MRSA bacteriophage (Podoviridae, subfamily Autographivirinae) from the river Ganga water; stable up to 40°C, highly alkaline pH; very host-specific. The genome encodes ∼52 ORFs, includes its own RNA polymerase. Isolate MRSA from wastewater, then isolate and characterize a bacteriophage against the MRSA, including physical and genomic characteristics. |
Four MRSA isolates were obtained. One phage isolated (lytic Autographivirinae Podovirus). Tolerates 40°C, high pH, but narrow host range. The genome lacks lysogeny genes. Promising for anti-MRSA therapy. |
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Barman et al89, 2022 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Comparative genomics In silico Cholera |
Comparison of 86 cholera phage genomes. Identify therapeutic candidates. |
Suggested optimal phage combinations for cholera therapy. |
|
Chowdhari et al90, 2022 Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi |
Observational (Surveillance) Ex vivo (wastewater analysis) Fecal pollution monitoring (enteric pathogens in wastewater) |
F-specific RNA coliphages (male-specific coliphages) genogroups II (100% detected) and III (78% detected) in raw sewage. GI and GIV not detected. Quantify panel of microbial indicators (including coliphages) in Indian wastewater treatment plants and identify reliable markers of human fecal contamination. |
Human-associated coliphages are consistently present (GII, GIII). Non-pathogenic indicators (PMMoV, Giardia) detected more reliably. Molecular monitoring of F-specific RNA phages can improve fecal source tracking. |
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Chaudhary et al91, 2022 Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh |
Experimental laboratory study (phage isolation, genomic analysis, in vitro efficacy) In vitro (laboratory) Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) caused by MDR/XDR Uropathogenic E. coli |
Phage vB_EcoA_RDN8.1 - novel lytic phage against MDR/XDR uropathogenic E. coli; from sewage. Autographiviridae; ∼39.5 kb genome; burst size ∼250; stable across temperatures/pH; encodes endolysin. Characterize novel lytic phage (vB_EcoA_RDN8.1) active against MDR/XDR biofilm-forming uropathogenic E. coli, including host range, stability, genome, and antibiofilm activity. |
Phage vB_EcoA_RDN8.1 was characterized as a novel lytic Autographiviridae phage effective against drug-resistant UPEC. Stable, significantly reduced biofilm. Strong potential for therapeutic cocktails. |
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Chaudhary et al92, 2022 Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh |
Genomic characterization (Data in Brief) In vitro (lab) MDR Uropathogenic E. coli (UTIs) |
Escherichia phage NTEC3 (Siphoviridae; dsDNA, 44.2 kb). Provide the genome sequence and in vitro characterization of phage NTEC3 active against MDR UPEC. |
NTEC3 formed 4-5 mm plaques, lysed 24.4% of 45 MDR/XDR UPEC strains. The genome lacks lysogeny, toxin, or antibiotic resistance genes. Potential candidate for UTI phage therapy. |
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Gangwar et al93, 2022 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Pre-clinical animal study (toxicity and immunological safety assessment) In vivo - pre-clinical (rats) XDR Klebsiella Pneumoniae infection (phage therapy safety) |
Cocktail of lytic bacteriophages targeting XDR Klebsiella Pneumoniae strain; administered orally (high dose 1010 PFU and very high dose 1015 PFU) to rats. Demonstrate oral acute and sub-acute toxicity of Klebsiella Pneumoniae phage cocktail in rats, with special attention to immunological responses and adverse effects. |
No adverse effects observed in phage-treated rats. Normal food/water intake, weight gain. No significant differences in hematology, biochemistry, cytokine levels. No abnormalities in organs. Immunologically safe. |
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Rathor et al94, 2022 All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi |
Laboratory study (phage isolation and genomic characterization) In vitro (river water sample analyzed in the lab) Multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections (hospital-acquired infections) |
Pseudomonas phage AIIMS-Pa-A1 (lytic phage from Ganga water) with icosahedral head (∼58 nm) and short tail (∼7 nm), Autographiviridae. Adsorption constant ∼1.5×10-9 ml-1 min-1; latent period ∼15 min; burst size ∼27. Genome ∼40.97 kb, high GC, encodes lysis genes. Novel phage. Isolate and characterize a lytic bacteriophage from the Ganga River against drug-resistant P. aeruginosa, to evaluate its potential as a therapeutic agent. |
Phage AIIMS-Pa-A1 produced clear lytic zones. Podovirus-like structure (Autographiviridae). Rapid adsorption/replication. Genome analysis confirmed a novel species. Significant potential for therapeutic development. |
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Rathor et al95, 2022 All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi |
Genomic characterization (descriptive) In vitro (laboratory) Opportunistic infection (Pseudomonas luteola) |
Pseudomonas phage AIIMS-Plu-RaNi (Siphoviridae; icosahedral head/tail; 46.6 kb dsDNA genome, 64.45% GC, 68 ORFs) Sequence and analyze the phage genome |
The genome is 46.6 kb with 68 predicted genes; no known toxin or resistance genes identified. This first genome of a P. luteola phage provides a resource for phage therapy development. |
|
Singh et al96, 2022 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental study (animal model) In vivo (pre-clinical, mice) Septicemia (Klebsiella Pneumoniae infection) |
Cocktail of three lytic K. pneumoniae phages (φKpBHU4, φKpBHU7, φKpBHU14) from Varanasi sewage/pond/river; used as intraperitoneal therapy. Optimize quantity and frequency of phage cocktail to eradicate K. pneumoniae in an immunocompetent septicemic mouse model. |
Phage therapy is effective. Single low dose (1×105 PFU) protected at any sepsis stage. High doses given early were fatal. Multiple doses are required for clearance. |
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Tewari et al97, 2022 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Experimental (disinfection study) In vitro and in vivo Viruses (influenza A H1N1) and bacteriophage particles in indoor air |
Vibriophage D-10: a lytic Vibrio phage used as a surrogate virus. Electrically activated water mist (AWM) containing reactive oxygen species (ROS) was tested. To evaluate the antiviral and bacteriophage-inactivating efficacy and biocompatibility of an electrically activated water mist (AWM) produced by the Airlens Minus Corona (AMC) device. |
AWM was non-cytotoxic and caused no skin irritation. It inactivated 100% of H1N1 influenza within 5 min. For phage D-10, ∼70% of phage particles were inactivated after 15 min and >90% after 30 min exposure. Thus, the ROS-containing AWM is a safe, effective disinfectant against airborne viruses and phages. |
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Vinodkumar et al98, 2022 SS Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Davangere, Karnataka |
Experimental (in vivo) In vivo (mouse model) Pneumonia caused by NDM-4-producing Klebsiella Pneumoniae |
Klebsiella phage isolated from the environment (Siphoviridae family) Evaluate the effectiveness of bacteriophage in the treatment of pneumonia caused by NDM-4-producing Klebsiella Pneumoniae |
Bacteriophage has prospects for the treatment of pneumonia caused by the NDM-producing Klebsiella Pneumoniae |
|
Yadav et al99, 2022 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental (animal) In vivo (preclinical mouse model) Salmonella Typhimurium infection (typhoid model) |
Three S. Typhimurium phages (phage cocktail). Assess bacteriophage therapy for acute and chronic Salmonella infections in mice. |
Phage treatment completely cleared S. Typhimurium in both acute and chronic models. Oral phage eliminated carriage within 7 days. All treated mice survived without shedding bacteria. |
|
Barman et al100, 2023 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Computational (bioinformatics) In silico N/A (general phage) |
Phage virion proteins (PVPs), general (no specific phage). Develop a machine‐learning model to predict phage virion proteins (PVPs). |
The gradient boosting classifier achieved the best accuracy (80% training, 83% test). Web server for PVP prediction made freely available. |
|
Behera et al101, 2023 ICAR-Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Kolkata, West Bengal |
Metagenomic comparative study In vitro (environmental water) Not specific (focus on waterborne pathogens) |
River Ganga phage diversity profiled by metagenomics. The polluted site (Kanpur) had higher Microviridae (ssDNA) and Mimiviridae; the cleaner site (Farakka) had more Myoviridae, unknown phages, and Retroviridae. Compare phage communities at polluted versus non-polluted sites of the Ganga River. |
Kanpur water had more Microviridae and Mimiviridae, while Farakka had higher Myoviridae and unclassified phages. Despite pollution, Kanpur’s phage abundance may aid the Ganga’s natural self-cleansing properties. |
|
Benala et al102, 2023 ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh and Kochi, Kerala |
In vitro experimental study In vitro (laboratory) Antimicrobial-resistant E. coli (zoonotic AMR strains) |
Polyphage cocktail of 2-10 coliphages (from marine/freshwater). Test the efficacy of polyphage cocktails against AMR E. coli. |
At MOI 100 and 1000, all cocktails completely suppressed AMR E. coli growth. The 10-phage cocktail lysed 100% of the farmed shrimp isolates. Phage-phage synergy observed at high MOIs. |
|
Benala et al103, 2023 ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh |
Experimental (laboratory) In vitro and in vivo (preclinical) Luminescent Vibrio harveyi infection in shrimp (vibriosis) |
Vibriophage φLV6: lytic Siphoviridae phage; genome ∼79,862 bp, 107 ORFs, no AMR/virulence genes. Broadly lytic against 6 luminescent V. harveyi isolates. Characterize the genome of phage φLV6 and assess its lytic activity and infectivity against luminescent V. harveyi from shrimp hatcheries. |
Phage φLV6 is stable up to 30 ppt salinity, 12 months at 4 °C. Inhibited V. harveyi growth across salinities. Reduced larval mortality in shrimp. Promising biocontrol agent. |
|
Chandran et al104, 2023 Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Wayanad, Kerala |
Lab-based screening study In vitro Starter culture failure in Dahi |
Lytic phage infecting Lacticaseibacillus paracasei, Siphoviridae. Screen dairy effluents for lytic phages against L. paracasei. |
Lytic phage detected, first of its kind from Kerala. Monitoring was advised to prevent culture failure. |
|
Chaudhary et al105, 2023 Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh |
Experimental (in vivo) Pre-clinical (infant mouse cholera model) Acute diarrheal disease (Cholera by V. cholerae O1) |
Vibrio phage VMJ710 (ICP1-like Myovirus; ∼41 phage genome closely related to ICP1_2012). Assess the prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy of phage against pathogenic MDR V. choleraein vivo. |
Phage VMJ710 significantly reduced V. cholerae gut colonization/illness. Prophylactic administration prevented infection; therapeutic dosing lowered counts. Phage-stable, disrupted biofilms. |
|
Dehari et al106, 2023 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental study (phage formulation development) In vitro Burn wound infections (MDR S. aureus and P. aeruginosa) |
A. baumannii-specific bacteriophages (BPABF1) encapsulated in chitosan microparticles. Treat MDR polybacterial burn wound infections using phage gel. |
Phage gel improved healing, reduced infection; sustained delivery was observed. |
|
Dehari et al107, 2023 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Experimental study (phage formulation development) In vitro Burn wound infections (MDR S. aureus and P. aeruginosa) |
A bacteriophage cocktail [against MDR S. aureus (BPSAФ1) and P. aeruginosa (BPPAФ1)] loaded chitosan microparticles-laden topical gel has been developed for Treat MDR polybacterial burn wound infections using phage gel. |
Excellent antibiofilm eradication potential in vitro and effective wound healing after topical application |
|
Nayak et al108, 2023 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Lab-based phage isolation In vitro Tuberculosis (non-TB strains) |
Temperate phage KVT1. Isolate a novel mycobacteriophage. |
Cluster K1 phage isolated, potential TB therapy candidate. |
|
Rathor et al109, 2023 All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi |
Laboratory study (phage isolation and surface disinfection test) In vitro (laboratory research) Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infections (hospital context) |
A cocktail formulated with seven lytic phages against MDR A. baumannii from Ganga River water. Hexagonal heads, long tails (Caudovirales). Each phage showed a narrow host range (lysed 3 of 50 isolates). Isolate bacteriophages from environmental waters against MDR A. baumannii and evaluate their potential as therapeutic agents and disinfectants. |
Seven distinct phages were obtained, narrow host range. Phage cocktail significantly reduced A. baumannii contamination on surfaces. Potential therapeutic/disinfectant tools. |
|
Biswas et al110, 2024 ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases, Kolkata, West Bengal† |
Experimental characterization In vitro (laboratory) Cholera (MDR Vibrio cholerae infection) |
Vibrio phages 4141 (Autographiviridae, 38.5 kb) and MJW (Zobellviridae, 49.9 kb); dsDNA. Assess the therapeutic potential of phages 4141 and MJW against MDR V. cholerae. |
Both phages infected >95% of tested V. cholerae O1 ElTor strains. High biofilm degradation. Strong candidates for future cholera phage therapy. |
|
Choudhary et al111, 2024 Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab |
Experimental laboratory study (phage induction and genomic characterization) In vitro (laboratory) Shigellosis (diarrheal infection by Shigella; focus on multidrug-resistant strains in poultry) |
Novel Shigella flexneri prophage φPSFA (induced); stable 20-65 °C, pH 3-11; ∼47 kb genome (Straboviridae) with no virulence/resistance genes. Lytic against ∼73% MDR Shigella. Find an alternative to antibiotics by isolating and characterizing phages against multidrug-resistant Shigella from poultry. |
Induced phage φPSFA was safe, lysed 73.08% of MDR Shigella isolates, showing a wide host range. Potential biocontrol/therapy agent. |
|
Karn et al112, 2024 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Randomized controlled trial (double-blind, placebo-controlled) In vivo - clinical (human patients) Chronic non-healing wound infections (≥6 weeks duration, often with MDR bacteria) |
Customized bacteriophage cocktails specific to bacterial pathogens isolated from each patient’s chronic wound (personalized to cover S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, etc.). Formulated for topical application. Assess efficacy and safety of personalized phage cocktail therapy vs placebo in treating chronic (>6 weeks) wound infections in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. |
Phage therapy significantly improved outcomes. 93.3% of wounds were sterile by a median of 39 days, and all healed by 90 days. Placebo arm: 83.3% remained infected, did not heal. No phage-related adverse events. |
|
Kaur et al113, 2024 Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Ludhiana, Punjab |
Laboratory isolation and phage screening study (fish pathogen and phage) In vitro (laboratory) Aeromonas hydrophila infection in fish (carp; aquaculture outbreak) |
Screened 13 phages; AVP3 (Aeromonas veronii phage) lysed MDR A. hydrophila isolate. Broad host range against other Aeromonas species. Isolate MDR A. hydrophila from diseased fish and evaluate phages as biocontrol against this pathogen in aquaculture. |
Phage AVP3 efficiently lysed MDR A. hydrophila and other Aeromonas species. Broad host-range phage like AVP3 promises to mitigate aquaculture outbreaks. |
|
Menon et al114, 2024 Bhavan’s College, Mumbai, Maharashtra |
Environmental surveillance study (cross-sectional assessment of indicator phages) Other (in situ wastewater monitoring, lab assays) Enteric virus pollution indicators (surrogates for diseases like viral gastroenteritis, hepatitis A/E) |
F-specific RNA coliphages (e.g., MS2) were detected in municipal wastewater using Salmonella typhimurium WG49 and E. coli Famp. The E. coli Famp assay showed higher sensitivity (∼45.6% vs ∼35.1%). Evaluate occurrence and removal of F+ coliphages through municipal wastewater treatment in Mumbai, and assess suitability as on-site viral indicator organisms. |
F-specific coliphages prevalent in untreated sewage concentrations dropped after treatment. E. coli Famp-based assay yielded higher positivity. Supports F+ coliphages as indicators. |
|
Regar et al115, 2024 CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh |
Comparative metagenomic analysis Other (environmental) N/A (riverine microbial ecology) |
Phage communities in four rivers (Ganga, Narmada, Cauvery, Gomti) were characterized by shotgun metagenomics. Evaluate effects of pollution on microbial and phage communities in major Indian rivers (Ganga, Narmada, Cauvery, Gomti). |
The Ganga River had the highest phage abundance and diversity, especially in the upstream Alaknanda. Phages, mainly from gut commensals, carried AMGs but no resistance genes, reflecting pollution sensitivity. |
|
Sankaranarayanan et al116, 2024 Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu |
Metagenomic comparative study In vitro (gut microbiome) Not disease-focused (resistome/virome profiling) |
Gut virome of three ethnic groups: identified bacteriophages (mostly infecting Bifidobacteriaceae and Enterococcaceae) via assembly (VIBRANT). Profile gut antibiotic resistome and virome (phages and viral AMGs) in three Indian ethnic cohorts (Jaisalmer, Khargone, Ladakh). |
Khargone and Ladakh had higher ARGs than Jaisalmer. Gut phages carried amino acid-related AMGs; Ladakh had fewer. No ARGs found in phages, indicating low resistance transmission risk. |
|
Singh et al117, 2024 Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh |
Preclinical animal study (mouse model experiment) In vivo (mice, pre-clinical) Urinary tract infection (UTI) by colistin-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae) |
Cocktail of three lytic K. pneumoniae phages (φKpnBHU1, φKpnBHU2, φKpnBHU3) with broad host range; characterized by SEM and genome sequencing. Evaluate the efficacy of lytic phage cocktail via different administration routes and dosages to eradicate colistin-resistant K. pneumoniae UTI in a mouse model. |
Two transurethral doses (1×105 PFU) or a single (1×109 PFU) cleared infection. Oral/rectal required higher doses; subcutaneous was ineffective. Phage cocktails can cure UTIs. |
|
Chakraborty et al118, 2025 University of Delhi, New Delhi |
Experimental lab study (phage isolation and genomics) In vitro Drug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae |
Phage SAKp11, Casjensviridae, ∼59 kb; effective against MDR K. pneumoniae biofilms. Isolate and characterize phage against MDR Klebsiella biofilm. |
Phage lysed 62/167 strains, disrupted 99.99% biofilms; therapeutically suitable. |
|
Samson et al119, 2025 CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, Maharashtra |
Experimental laboratory study (phage isolation and characterization) In vitro (laboratory) Water contamination (E. coli in wastewater; diarrheal disease risk) |
Novel broad-spectrum phage φERS-1 (Tequatrovirus) isolated from the Ganges River; infects MDR E. coli and P. aeruginosa. Isolate and characterize new bacteriophages from the upper Ganges and evaluate their use as biocontrol agents against antibiotic-resistant E. coli in wastewater. |
φERS-1 reduced E. coli by ∼8.22 log₁₀ CFU/mL in 24h, disrupted biofilm, and reduced coliforms in sewage. Promising for wastewater treatment. |
|
Thakare et al120, 2025 Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat |
Experimental comparative study In vitro (laboratory) Escherichia coli biofilm (drinking water contamination) |
Coliphage AM active against E. coli: at 106 PFU/mL showed significant anti-adhesive/anti-biofilm effect. Evaluate anti-biofilm effects of rhamnolipid biosurfactant, common chemicals, and a coliphage on E. coli biofilms. |
Rhamnolipid DKR (0.25 mg/mL) and coliphage AM (10⁶ PFU/mL) significantly reduced E. coli adhesion and biofilms. Both are effective, eco-friendly anti-biofilm agents for water system applications. |
Methodologically, various study designs were utilized. India’s bacteriophage studies could be categorised into a variety of research landscapes across fields. Biomedical and clinical studies were ample in the dataset, consisting of 26 studies (two clinical, 12 in vitro, and 12 in vivo) and focusing mostly on antibiotic-resistant infections and wound healing. The veterinary and zoonotic field provided 42 studies, with strong in vitro and in vivo research on mastitis, zoonotic diarrhoea, and fish pathogens. There were 18 ecological and environmental studies, such as environmental monitoring and water virome profiling. Miscellaneous studies (24 in total) investigated emerging topics like Mycobacterium phages, delivery systems, and aquaculture uses. Together, this distribution emphasizes India’s increased interest in translational and applied phage research as well as uncovering opportunities for further development into underrepresented ecological and clinical areas ( Table II). Only two studies focused on phageome (community of bacteriophages and their metagenomes).
| Research domain | Study type | No. of studies | References | Study topics | Summarised key results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clinical and biomedical | Clinical | 2 | 85, 87 | Chronic non-healing wounds (diabetic and non-diabetic) | >80% wound healing success using phages; superior to antibiotics in some cases |
| In vitro | 12 | 15, 18, 25, 31, 36, 47, 50, 72, 73, 106, 107, 118 | MDR burn infections, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus | Potent lytic activity and strong anti-biofilm efficacy in resistant strains | |
| In vivo animal | 12 | 11, 12, 24, 28, 30, 40, 55, 56, 58, 75, 82, 84 | Shigella, Klebsiella, and Pseudomonas infections in mice | Significant reduction in mortality and bacterial load with timely phage therapy | |
| Environmental and ecological | Environmental surveillance | 6 | 13, 29, 78, 90, 114, 115 | Cholera, sewage virome, river water profiling | Ganga showed high phage diversity; anthropogenic pollution reduced phage richness |
| In vitro | 12 | 21, 33, 46, 59, 60, 66, 67, 81, 88, 94, 101, 119 | Environmental E. coli, Bacillus, Shigella | Stable, high-titer environmental phages isolated with therapeutic potential | |
| Veterinary and zoonotic | In vitro | 19 | 35, 38, 44, 57, 61, 65, 68, 71, 77, 80, 91, 92, 95, 102, 103, 110, 111, 113, 120 | Aeromonas, Vibrio, E. coli (animal strains) | Efficient typing, good host range and environmental robustness |
| In vivo animal | 19 | 23, 27, 34, 39, 42, 48, 51, 52, 53, 79, 86, 93, 96, 98, 99, 105, 109, 112, 117 | Mastitis, diarrhoea, murine infection | High phage test sensitivity/specificity in detecting veterinary-origin pathogens; improved survival and clinical recovery in animal models treated with phages | |
| Other applied | 4 | 32, 37, 54, 76 | Drug delivery, mucosal immunology | Evaluated immune-safety, delivery routes, and stability of formulations | |
| Miscellaneous | In vitro | 18 | 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 26, 41, 43, 49, 63, 64, 70, 74, 83, 104, 108, 116 | Brucellosis, Mycobacterium, generalized phage work | Genomic studies, novel host range phages, and molecular insights |
| In vivo animal | 1 | 62 | Aquaculture (Vibrio in shrimp) | Phages provided significant protection in the aquatic disease model | |
| Other applied | 5 | 45, 69, 89, 97, 100 | Milk hygiene, probiotics, and influenza interaction | Varied insights: phage stability, detection sensitivity, and adjuvant properties |
Table III groups bacteriophage research in India under four broad categories: discovery and characterisation, therapeutics, environmental/agricultural applications, and mechanism-based insights. Subcategories include genomic profiling, stability testing, therapeutic assessments, combined therapy, environmental monitoring, and studies of biofilm disruption and phage-host interactions. A total of 48 studies focused on discovery and characterisation, 26 on therapeutic applications, 22 on environmental/agricultural uses, and 15 on mechanistic insights. This distribution highlights the skew towards early-stage laboratory work, with extremely limited translational or clinical research.
| Overarching categories | Sub-categories |
|---|---|
| Phage discovery and characterization |
|
| Phage therapeutics and applications in health |
|
| Environmental and agricultural applications |
|
| Mechanistic and functional insights |
|
Discussion
A total of 111 Indian bacteriophage studies,11-120 conducted over nearly a century and of immediate and direct human health relevance were identified. Most of the literature pertained to human health and was focused primarily on pathogens, such as Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella sp., Klebsiella sp., Staphylococcus sp., and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Most of the research was basic science-based, related to phage isolation, characterisation, genomics, and host interactions, while relatively fewer studies were clinical or translational. Notably, several studies looked at phage typing and environmental monitoring of V. cholerae. Few studies were on phage diagnostics, phage display for human immunodeficiency virus, and genomic analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, translational research was an exception, limited to phage therapy in animal models or as isolated case reports, such as a 1930 trial on dysentery. There were no full-fledged human clinical trials.
Research gap analysis reported significant limitations compared with the international standards ( Table IV). The most significant gaps are inadequate genomic characterization, insufficient modelling of phage-host interactions, uncommon longitudinal surveillance, and a lack of pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic data. No large-scale clinical trials are available in India, in contrast to Europe and North America. Opportunities in animal applications are significantly underdeveloped, with few field-validated products. While environmental research has improved our understanding of phage ecology, high-resolution metagenomic maps and functional profiles are lacking. Human phageome analysis was restricted to only two cohort studies despite its promise in biomarker discovery and individualised therapeutics development.121,122
| Thematic area | Research type | Gaps/under-researched areas in India (vs. global trends) |
|---|---|---|
| Clinical (human health) | Basic science | Limited genomics/engineering. Indian labs isolate many clinical phages, but there are few modern genomic, phageome, or synthetic phage projects. Global research and development emphasize phage genomics, engineering, and discovery, as well as the application of metagenomics to investigate human phage communities. |
| Translational (animal) | Narrow range of models. India has some small animal studies (mice/rabbits) for wound and sepsis models, but lacks diverse or scaled translational work. Worldwide, complex models and personalized therapy approaches are used. | |
| Clinical trials | Very few human trials. India has only isolated case studies and one small randomised controlled trial (wound healing); global research lists dozens of registered phage trials (chronic wounds, respiratory, urinary tract infection, etc.). No large, controlled trials or approved phage therapies exist in India. | |
| Veterinary/agricultural | Basic science | Key livestock pathogens were understudied. India has isolated phages for aquaculture (shrimp/fish) and some poultry pathogens; by contrast, global One-Health efforts target major livestock diseases and foodborne bacteria. |
| Translational (animal) | Lack of field studies. There are virtually no farm-scale or animal-group trials of phage treatment/vaccination in Indian livestock or aquaculture; globally, phages are being tested in feed additives and outbreak control. | |
| Veterinary trials | No veterinary programmes. India has no veterinary phage therapy centres or large-scale animal trials. By comparison, Europe and Asia have emerging phage centres treating animal infections as part of One Health. | |
| Environmental (Water/ecosystems) | Basic science | Limited metagenomic surveys. Indian research has mostly measured coliphages in water or analyzed gut viromes in small cohorts; global trends involve large-scale viral metagenomics and phage ecology studies. |
| Translational (applications) | A few applied projects. Very few Indian studies use phages for bioremediation or biosensing. Worldwide, phage enzymes and biosensors are being developed for pollution control and water safety. | |
| Environmental surveillance | Underutilized surveillance. Historical Indian work in outbreak settings (e.g., using phages as fecal pollution indicators) is outdated. Globally, phage presence is used in epidemiology and One Health monitoring; India could expand such tools. |
Comparison of these results with international bacteriophage research indicates parallels and differences. Worldwide, there is rapidly increasing interest in phages due to emerging antibiotic resistance. Worldwide publications on phage therapy increased from 61 in 2001 to more than 900 in 2021.123-128 Across the world, phage biology, phage engineering, research into phage endolysins, biofilm disassembly, and more clinical uses have been the research hotspots, and the field of phages enjoys access to cutting-edge genomic tools, synthetic biology, and collaborative clinical trials initiatives. For instance, international experts have highlighted phage genome engineering as a means to enhance therapeutic traits, and specialised programmes (e.g., INCATE in Europe) are driving the advancement of phage product development. Additionally, studies were published on phages being investigated beyond infection control and for vaccine development and cancer treatment, citing an array of innovations globally.123-128,129,130
Indian institutions contributing to various domains of bacteriophage research, including advancement of phage isolation, genomics, therapeutics, and One Health studies are presented in Table I. Indian and international scholars alike see phages as a potential solution against antimicrobial resistance, and Indian researchers have focused on isolating phages from indigenous sources and establishing preliminary efficacy in the laboratory (frequently against locally relevant pathogens). Consistent with the global priority of One Health, some Indian studies have taken anintegrated approach (e.g., combined human-animal-environment surveillance), but few have comprehensively incorporated these views. Importantly, reviews worldwide highlight the promise of phage therapy, particularly in LMICs, because of cost‐effectiveness. Phage manufacturing is comparatively inexpensive and may be advantageous to LMICs, such as India, but also requires additional clinical trials and phage product standardisation.
India currently lacks a defined regulatory framework for bacteriophage therapy, with the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation offering no clear guidelines for clinical trials, compassionate use, or good manufacturing practice (GMP)-certified manufacturing. The absence of policy creates barriers in trial approval, quality control, and clinical adoption. Establishing national guidelines, GMP facilities, and integrating phages into India’s antimicrobial resistance action plan are urgent priorities. Phage therapy regulations vary significantly across the globe6; while some countries like Poland, Georgia, and Russia have long-standing practices, others in Western Europe and the United States of America are still developing their regulatory frameworks. While the European Medicines Agency is working on specific regulations, the United States Food and Drug Administration currently approves clinical trials and compassionate use on case-to-case basis. The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency of the United Kingdom has recently published regulatory norms for the therapeutic use of bacteriophages.131 Recently, the European Medicines Agency has also released a draft guideline on the quality aspects of phage therapy medicinal products132.To mainstream phage therapy in India, priority must be given to (i) targeted funding mechanisms, (ii) development of regulatory frameworks under the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation, and (iii) establishment of GMP-grade phage repositories and production units.
This scoping review adhered to PRISMA-ScR guidelines to thoroughly map Indian bacteriophage research. Its main strengths are a wide search strategy and theming and research stage categorisation, with the result being an extensive landscape of the field. By calling attention to both historical and recent research, we add contextual depth to India’s phage research path. There are, however, some limitations. We only included published papers available in searchable databases. The heterogeneity of study designs (historical case series to contemporary genomics), precluding evaluation of research quality, is a common limitation in scoping reviews. Moreover, classification as basic, translational, or clinical may be somewhat qualitative and reduce complex studies to over simplification. Lastly, the field is developing very rapidly, hence very recent advances or products may not have appeared in the literature yet. With these reservations, this review highlights the major trends and gaps.
To conclude, our review identifies an expanding, but unbalanced terrain of bacteriophage research in India with direct human health implications. Indian phage research has remained concentrated on the laboratory and exploratory studies (such as the discovery of phages, bio-disinfection tests, and outbreak monitoring), as opposed to large‐scale translational or clinical research. Although promising foundations have been built, translational potential and clinical applications are still uncertain. Closing regulatory gaps, conducting clinical trials, developing phage engineering, and formulating One Health strategies arevital to fulfill the therapeutic potential of bacteriophages to fight antimicrobial resistance.
Author contributions
Sai.D, San.D, and SP: Conceptualized the review; Sai.D: Drafted the study protocol; Sai.D, SM, MH, MA, and SS: Literature search and study selection; Sai.D and MH: Extracted data from the included studies; Sai.D: qualitative analyses; MA, PM, and IS: Interpreted the analyses; Sai.D, SM and MH: Directly accessed and verified the underlying data reported in the manuscript; Sai.Das: Drafted the review; AKC, SKT, San.D, and SP: Provided guidance, expert inputs, and updated the final review. All authors have read and approve the final printed version of the manuscript.
Financial support and sponsorship
None.
Conflicts of Interest
None.
Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-Assisted Technology for manuscript preparation
The authors confirm that there was no use of AI-assisted technology for assisting in the writing of the manuscript and no images were manipulated using AI.
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